{"elementGlobalId":802301,"circumscripConfidence":null,"classificationLevel":{"id":7,"classificationLevelNameEn":"Species","classificationLevelNameEs":"Especies","classificationLevelNameFr":"Espèce"},"classificationStatus":{"id":1,"classificationStatusDescEn":"Standard","classificationStatusDescEs":"Estándar","classificationStatusDescFr":"Standard"},"iucn":{"id":4,"iucnDescEn":"Endangered","iucnDescEs":"En peligro de extinción","iucnDescFr":"En voie de disparition","iucnCode":"EN"},"nameCategory":{"id":1,"nameCategoryDescEn":"Vertebrate Animal","nameCategoryDescEs":"Animal vertebrado","nameCategoryDescFr":"Animal vertébré","nameTypeCd":"A","nameTypeDesc":"Zoological"},"rankMethodUsed":{"id":7,"rankMethodUsedDescEn":" Rank calculation - Biotics v2","rankMethodUsedDescEs":null,"rankMethodUsedDescFr":null,"rankMethodUsedExternalDescEn":"Ranked by calculator","rankMethodUsedExternalDescEs":null,"rankMethodUsedExternalDescFr":null},"formattedScientificName":"<i>Ambystoma cingulatum</i>","scientificName":"Ambystoma cingulatum","scientificNameAuthor":"Cope, 1867 [1868]","primaryCommonName":"Frosted Flatwoods Salamander","relatedItisNames":"<i>Ambystoma cingulatum</i> Cope, 1868 (TSN 173596)","uniqueId":"ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.802301","elcode":"AAAAA01030","conceptRefFullCitation":"Pauly, G. B., O. Piskurek, and H. B. Shaffer. 2007. Phylogeographic concordance in the southeastern United States: the flatwoods salamander, <i>Ambystoma cingulatum</i>, as a test case. Molecular Ecology 16:415-429. [Note: Two errors were inadvertently introduced into the paragraph on pages 424-425. The common names attributed to each flatwoods salamander species are reversed. Similarly, the previously published color pattern descriptions are incorrectly attributed to each species.]","conceptName":"<i>Ambystoma cingulatum</i>","taxonomicComments":"Based on patterns of genetic and morphological variation, Pauly et al. (2007) concluded that <i>Ambystoma cingulatum</i> should be split into two species, <i>A. bishopi</i> west of the Apalachicola-Flint rivers and <i>A. cingulatum</i> east of those rivers.<br/><br/>Based on mtDNA evidence, <i>A. cingulatum</i> (sensu stricto) inhabiting the eastern Gulf Coastal Plain and the Atlantic Coastal Plain in northern Florida are distinct lineages; the Suwannee River and a large distributional gap separate them (Pauly et al. 2007). Further data are needed to determine whether these two lineages warrant recognition as different species (Pauly et al. 2007).","roundedGRank":"G1","conservationStatusFactorsEditionDate":"2025-05-13","conservationStatusFactorsEditionAuthors":"Gundy, R. L. (2025)","primaryCommonNameLanguage":"EN","recordType":"SPECIES","elementNationals":[{"elementNationalId":802302,"classifConfidence":null,"nation":{"id":225,"nameEn":"United States","nameEs":"Estados Unidos","nameFr":"États-Unis","isoCode":"US","region":"United States"},"roundedNRank":"N2","elementSubnationals":[{"elementSubnationalId":802305,"subnation":{"id":14,"nameEn":"Georgia","nameEs":"Georgia","nameFr":"Géorgie","subnationCode":"GA","dnationId":225},"roundedSRank":"S1","dataSensitive":{"id":2,"dataSensitiveDescEn":"No","dataSensitiveDescEs":null,"dataSensitiveDescFr":null,"dataSensitiveCode":"N"},"dataSensitiveCategory":null,"srank":"S1","speciesSubnational":{"elementSubnationalId":802305,"hybrid":false,"exotic":false,"native":true}},{"elementSubnationalId":802304,"subnation":{"id":12,"nameEn":"Florida","nameEs":"Florida","nameFr":"Floride","subnationCode":"FL","dnationId":225},"roundedSRank":"S1","dataSensitive":{"id":3,"dataSensitiveDescEn":"Conditional","dataSensitiveDescEs":null,"dataSensitiveDescFr":null,"dataSensitiveCode":"C"},"dataSensitiveCategory":{"id":4,"dataSensitiveCategoryDescEn":"Fragile species or habitat","dataSensitiveCategoryDescEs":null,"dataSensitiveCategoryDescFr":null,"nsStandardInd":true},"srank":"S1","speciesSubnational":{"elementSubnationalId":802304,"hybrid":false,"exotic":false,"native":true}},{"elementSubnationalId":802307,"subnation":{"id":48,"nameEn":"South Carolina","nameEs":"Carolina del Sur","nameFr":"Caroline du Sud","subnationCode":"SC","dnationId":225},"roundedSRank":"S1","dataSensitive":{"id":1,"dataSensitiveDescEn":"Yes","dataSensitiveDescEs":null,"dataSensitiveDescFr":null,"dataSensitiveCode":"Y"},"dataSensitiveCategory":{"id":4,"dataSensitiveCategoryDescEn":"Fragile species or habitat","dataSensitiveCategoryDescEs":null,"dataSensitiveCategoryDescFr":null,"nsStandardInd":true},"srank":"S1","speciesSubnational":{"elementSubnationalId":802307,"hybrid":false,"exotic":false,"native":true}}],"nrankReviewYear":2007,"nrank":"N2","speciesNational":{"elementNationalId":802302,"exotic":false,"native":true}}],"lastModified":"2026-10-02T22:45:25.121431Z","lastPublished":"2026-10-02T21:32:08.892226Z","promotionalDescription":null,"conceptLineageSummary":null,"nsxUrl":"/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.802301/Ambystoma_cingulatum","grankAdjustmentReasons":null,"grankChangeDate":"2025-05-13","grankReviewDate":"2025-05-13","grankReasons":"This species is endemic to the Coastal Plain of the southeastern United States. The population suffered steep declines of over 80% during the 20th century due to habitat loss and degradation, and continues to decline. It continues to be threatened by habitat degradation due to prescribed fires set in winter, increasing frequency of drought due to climate change, and the lack of connectivity between extant occurrences.","grank":"G1","rankInfo":{"elementGlobalId":802301,"aooPercentGood":null,"enviromentalSpecificity":{"id":1,"enviromentalSpecificityDescEn":"Very narrow.  Specialist or community with key requirements scarce.","enviromentalSpecificityDescEs":"Muy estrecho.  Especialista o comunidad con requisitos claves escasos.","enviromentalSpecificityDescFr":"Très étroit. Spécialistes ou communautés répondant aux critères clés sont rares."},"intrinsicVulnerability":{"id":1,"intrinsicVulnerabilityDescEn":"Highly vulnerable","intrinsicVulnerabilityDescEs":"Altamente vulnerable","intrinsicVulnerabilityDescFr":"Très vulnérable"},"longTermTrend":{"id":10,"longTermTrendDescEn":"Decline of 80-90%","longTermTrendDescEs":"Disminución del 80-90%.","longTermTrendDescFr":"Diminution de 80 à 90 %"},"numberEos":{"id":6,"numberEosDescEn":"6 - 20","numberEosDescEs":"De 6 a 20","numberEosDescFr":"De 6 à 20"},"numberGoodEos":{"id":7,"numberGoodEosDescEn":"Very few (1-3)","numberGoodEosDescEs":"Muy pocos (de 1 a 3)","numberGoodEosDescFr":"Très peu (de 1 à 3)"},"numberProtEos":{"id":16,"numberProtEosDescEn":"Unknown whether any occurrences are appropriately protected and managed","numberProtEosDescEs":"Se desconoce si se protege y controla adecuadamente algúna ocurrencia","numberProtEosDescFr":"Nombre inconnu d’occurrences protégées et contrôlées convenablement"},"popSize":{"id":27,"popSizeDescEn":"2500 - 10,000 individuals","popSizeDescEs":"De 2.500 a 10.000 individuos","popSizeDescFr":"De 2 500 à 10 000 individus"},"rangeExtent":{"id":26,"rangeExtentDescEn":"5000-20,000 square km (about 2000-8000 square miles)","rangeExtentDescEs":"De 5.000 a 20.000 kilómetros cuadrados (aproximadamente 2.000 a 8.000 millas cuadradas)","rangeExtentDescFr":"De 5 000 à 20 000 km carrés (de 2 000 à 8 000 miles carrés approximativement)"},"shortTermTrend":{"id":31,"shortTermTrendDescEn":"Decline of 30-50%","shortTermTrendDescEs":"Disminución del 30 al 50%.","shortTermTrendDescFr":"Diminution de 30 à 50 %"},"threatImpactAssigned":{"id":2,"threatImpactAssignedDescEn":"Very high - high","threatImpactAssignedDescEs":"Muy alto - alto","threatImpactAssignedDescFr":"Très élevé — élevé"},"rangeExtentComments":"This species is endemic to the southeastern United States. The range extends along the Coastal Plain from the Florida Panhandle west of the Apalachicola River into Georgia as far north as southeastern South Carolina (Pauly et al. 2007, Pauly et al. 2012, Semlitsch et al. 2017). Range extent is estimated to be around 15,000 km² (Semlitsch et al. 2017, Walls et al. 2019, RARECAT 2025).<br/><br/>The historical range included peninsular Florida as far south as Marion County, and much more of the current range within eastern Georgia and southern South Carolina (Semlitsch et al. 2017).","areaOfOccupancy":{"id":79,"areaOfOccupancyType":{"id":4,"areaOfOccupancyTypeDescEn":"4-km2 grid cells","areaOfOccupancyTypeDescEs":"Células de la cuadrícula de 4 km2","areaOfOccupancyTypeDescFr":"Cellules de grille de 4 km2"},"areaOfOccupancyDescEn":"6-25","areaOfOccupancyDescEs":"De 6 a 25","areaOfOccupancyDescFr":"De 6 à 25","bioticsKey":26},"areaOfOccupancyComments":"This species remains extant at several sites in the Florida Panhandle, one site in northeastern Georgia, and one site in southeastern South Carolina (Pauly et al. 2012, Semlitsch et al. 2017). Fewer than 25 grid cells are occupied (Semlitsch et al 2017, Walls et a. 2019).","numberEosComments":"There are approximately eight extant occurrences (Semlitsch et al. 2017, Walls et al. 2019). There is one occurrence in South Carolina, one occurrence in Georgia, and several occurrences spread across two conservation lands in the Florida Panhandle (Semlitsch et al. 2017, Walls et a. 2019).","popSizeComments":"Secretive habits of adults make population estimates difficult. Total adult population size likely is at least several thousand, but the actual number is unknown. At three breeding ponds with a mark-recapture program, at least 888 individuals were known in May 2018 prior to Hurricane Michael (October 2018) (Walls et al. 2019).","viabilityComments":"The only occurrences likely to have good viability are those that receive high-quality habitat management and, possibly, only those that will be recipients of headstarting programs (Westervelt et al. 2013, O'Donnell et al. 2017, Semlitsch et al. 2017, USFWS 2020). The occurrences at Fort Stewart in Georgia and Francis Marion National Forest in South Carolina likely do not have good viability due to their very limited abundance (USFWS 2020).","threatImpactComments":"The greatest remaining threats to this species are incompatible habitat management activities, climate change-induced droughts, reduced gene flow between occurrences, and potential introduction of predatory fishes to breeding ponds. Prescribed fires carried out during the winter months have contributed to local extirpations due to the encroachment of woody plants and the loss of grass-like plants growing in breeding ponds, reducing egg deposition sites (Ashton 1992, Bishop and Haas 2005, Gorman et al. 2009, Gorman et al. 2013). There have also been multiple informal reports of damaging forestry activities in the immediate vicinity of active breeding ponds on conservation lands in Florida. Ponds drying out during the winter breeding season is a threat projected to become more common with climate change (Palis et al. 2006, Chandler et al. 2024). One study found that a reduction in rainfall of 20% or more would cause this species to be lost at Fort Stewart, Georgia (Westervelt et al. 2013). Storm surge from hurricanes is an increasing threat at St. Marks National Wildlife Refuge, which are the lowest elevation ponds within the range. After Hurricane Michael in October 2018, at least 17 occupied breeding ponds were overwashed with saltwater to varying degrees, and reproduction the following breeding season was reduced by 98% compared to the previous year (Walls et al. 2019). Studies in the closely-related <i>A. bishopi</i> show this species currently shows little to no gene flow beyond a distance of 400 m (Williams et al. 2021, Gaupp 2022). Because of their nearly identical life histories, the same is almost certainly true for this species (USFWS 2020).<br/><br/>Past threats that have already taken their toll on this species include habitat destruction as a result of agriculture, silviculture, and residential and commercial development; crayfish harvesting by recreational fisherman causing incidental mortality; road mortality along highways near breeding ponds; algal blooms in breeding ponds due to fertilization of pine plantations; the release of predatory fishes into occupied breeding ponds; and overzealous scientific collection (Marois and Ewel 1983, Ashton 1992, Means et al. 1994, Means et al. 1996, USFWS 1999, USFWS 2020, Palis et al. 2022, J. Palis, pers. obs.).","shortTermTrendComments":"Since 2009, this species has been lost from all but one site in Georgia and from several sites in the Florida Panhandle (Semlitsch et al. 2017). The species continues to face ongoing threats and will likely continue to decline without active intervention (USFWS 2020).","longTermTrendComments":"This species suffered drastic declines in abundance, area of occupancy, and range extent throughout the 20th century, and now occupies only a small fraction of the historical range<b> </b>(Bishop and Haas 2005, USFWS 2005, Pauly et al. 2007, Pauly et al. 2012, Semlitsch et al. 2017).","inventoryNeeds":"Continued sampling, particularly under favorable breeding conditions, at the breeding ponds with the most recent suspected extirpation events is needed to confirm their absence. Population size estimates are needed. Population size trends analysis is needed.","numberProtEosComments":"This species occurs on several managed areas. This species is currently limited to Apalachicola National Forest and St. Marks National Wildlife Refuge in Florida, Fort Stewart in Georgia, and Francis Marion National Forest in South Carolina (Pauly et al. 2012, Semlitsch et al. 2017). However, protection on conservation lands does not necessarily mean they are adequately managed. This species has been extirpated from some conservation lands (e.g. Osceola National Forest) and has declined in number of occupied breeding ponds on every conservation land where it currently occurs (Semlitsch et al. 2017). Incompatible habitat management has allowed local extirpations on conservation lands and continues to be an issue. Outlook on private lands where this species was once known to occur is very poor.","protectionNeeds":"An increase from federal threatened species status to endangered species status is warranted due to continuing declines. Maintain ecological integrity of managed areas from which species is known. Protect any populations found on private lands by conservation agreements or land purchases. Maintain proper breeding pond and upland habitat conditions with prescribed fire during the growing season. Restore ponds with woody plant encroachment with manual removal that avoids ground disturbance and the use of herbicides. A captive rearing program is underway and headstarting programs may be one of the only ways to preserve this species. Consider manipulating hydrology to increase hydroperiod.","otherConsiderations":null,"intrinsicVulnerabilityComments":"One study found that local populations of the closely-related <i>Ambystoma bishopi</i> can become extinct after only five years without reproduction and this almost certainly applies to this species as well (Palis et al. 2006, Brooks et al. 2023).","enviromentalSpecificityComments":"This species requires very specific parameters for both breeding pond habitat and upland habitat with frequent growing-season fire being an important component (Ashton 1992, USFWS 2020)."},"animalCharacteristics":{"elementGlobalId":802301,"majorHabitat":{"id":3,"majorHabitatDescEn":"Terrestrial","majorHabitatDescEs":"Terrestre","majorHabitatDescFr":"Terrestre"},"nonMigrant":false,"localMigrant":true,"longDistanceMigrant":false,"mobilityMigrationComments":"Salamanders of the <i>Ambystoma cingulatum-bishopi</i> complex migrate up to hundreds of meters between breeding and nonbreeding habitats; Ashton (1992) mentioned movements of over 1,700 meters. Migrations to breeding sites occur at night in conjunction with rains and passing cold fronts from mid-fall through early winter (Means 1972, Anderson and Williamson 1976; Palis, unpubl. data).","foodHabitsComments":"Goin (1950) found earthworm remains in the stomachs of adults. Larvae feed primarily on small crustaceans (Whiles et al. 2004).","animalPhenologyComments":"Seldom seen except during the breeding season. Small numbers of post-larval salamanders continue to be active on the surface during the winter months (Palis, unpubl. data).","colonialBreeder":true,"length":13,"width":null,"weight":null,"animalPhenologies":[{"animalCagPhenologyId":103424,"animalPhenology":{"id":1,"animalPhenologyDescEn":"Hibernates/aestivates","animalPhenologyDescEs":"Hibernación/Estivación","animalPhenologyDescFr":"Hiberne/estive","displayOrder":1},"adult":true,"immature":true},{"animalCagPhenologyId":103425,"animalPhenology":{"id":4,"animalPhenologyDescEn":"Nocturnal","animalPhenologyDescEs":"Nocturno","animalPhenologyDescFr":"Nocturne","displayOrder":4},"adult":true,"immature":true}],"animalFoodHabits":[{"animalCagFoodHabitsId":106353,"foodHabits":{"id":3,"foodHabitsDescEn":"Invertivore","foodHabitsDescEs":"Invertívoro","foodHabitsDescFr":"Invertivore","displayOrder":3},"adult":true,"immature":true}]},"occurrenceDelineations":[{"eoSpecsDetailId":1000,"locationUseClass":{"id":1,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Not applicable","locationUseClassDescEs":"No se aplica","locationUseClassDescFr":"Sans objet","displayOrder":1},"eoSpecGroupName":"Ambystomatid Salamanders","subtypes":null,"inferredExtentDistance":0.3,"inferredExtentNotes":"Inferred extent distance pertains to breeding sites (with the center of the circle in the center of the breeding site). Most ambystomatids stay within a few hundred meters of their breeding pool (see separation justification section).","minimumEoCriteria":"Occurrences are based on evidence of historical presence, or current and likely recurring presence, at a given location. Such evidence minimally includes collection or reliable observation and documentation of one or more individuals (including larvae or eggs) in or near appropriate habitat where the species is presumed to be established and  breeding.","mappingGuidance":null,"separationBarriers":"Heavily traveled road, especially at night during salamander breeding season, such that salamanders almost never successfully traverse the road; road with a barrier that is impermeable to salamanders; wide, fast rivers; areas of intensive development dominated by buildings and pavement.","separationDistanceUnsuitableHabitatat":1.0,"separationDistanceSuitableHabitatat":3.0,"altSeparationProcedure":null,"separationJustification":"BARRIERS/UNSUITABLE HABITAT: Rivers may or may not be effective barriers, depending on stream width and hydrodynamics; identification of streams as barriers is a subjective determination. Bodies of water dominated by predatory fishes have been described as barriers but probably should be regarded as unsuitable habitat. For A. barbouri, a stream-pool breeder, predatory fishes appeared to act as a barrier to larval dispersal and gene flow for populations separated by as little as 500-1000 m (Storfer 1999). Highly disturbed land, such as the cleared and bedded soils of some silvicultural site preparation, may serve as an impediment to movement of A. cingulatum (Means et al. 1996), although Ashton (1998) noted the species' use of pine plantations, pastures, and three-year-old clearcuts. Such areas should be treated as unsuitable habitat rather than barriers. <br><br>MOVEMENTS: Palis's (1997b) suggested use of 3.2 km between breeding sites to distinguish breeding populations of A. cingulatum was based on Ashton's (1992) finding that individuals may move as much as 1.6 km from their breeding ponds. Ambystoma californiense sometimes migrates up to 2 km between breeding ponds and terrestrial habitat (see USFWS 2004). Funk and Dunlap (1999) found that A. macrodactylum managed to recolonize lakes after trout extirpation despite evidence of low levels of interpopulation dispersal. Based on a review of several Ambystoma species (e.g., Semlitsch 1981, Douglas and Monroe 1981, Kleeberger and Werner 1983, Madison 1997), Semlitsch (1998) concluded that a radius of less than 200 meters around a breeding pond would likely encompass the terrestrial habitat used by more than 95 percent of adults. Faccio's (2003) study of radio-tagged A. maculatum and A. jeffersonianum in Vermont supports this conclusion. In New York, all movements of A. tigrinum occurred in areas within 300 m of the nearest breeding pond (Madison and Farrand 1998). However, most studies of these salamanders had small sample sizes and/or were not designed to detect long-distance movements, so migration distance may be somewhat underestimated.<br><br>In summary, ambystomatid salamanders generally stay within a few hundred meters of their breeding pool. Due to high breeding site fidelity and limitation of breeding to pool basins, populations using different breeding sites exhibit little or no interbreeding among adults. Thus one might argue that each pool constitutes a separate occurrence or that the separation distance for suitable habitat should be the nominal minimum of 1 km. However, little is known about how frequently first-time (or experienced) breeders use non-natal pools (pools from which they did not originate) or how far they may move to such sites. Frequent colonization of new and remote habitats by at least some species suggests that dispersal movements sometimes may be longer than typical adult migration distances. It seems unlikely that locations separated by a gap of less than a few kilometers of suitable habitat would represent independent occurrences over the long term.","versionDate":"2004-09-10","versionAuthor":"Hammerson, G.","versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2020-04-30T02:04:15.597347Z"}],"plantCharacteristics":null,"elementManagement":{"elementGlobalId":802301,"eoManagementGroupName":null,"stewardshipOverview":"This species requires active habitat management of upland communities occupied adults and wetlands for breeding. The single most important aspect may be applying prescribed fires during the growing season (spring and summer) every 2-4 years in both types of habitat utilized by this species (Bishop and Haas 2005, FNAI 2010, USFWS 2020). It is especially critical to have fires during the growing season because winter burns often do not reduce woody encroachment that will eventually form a closed canopy, outcompete native herbaceous grass-like vegetation, and reduce water retention, making breeding ponds unsuitable (Bishop and Haas 2005, Gorman et al. 2009, Gorman et al. 2013, USFWS 2020). While mechanical removal of woody plants can reduce canopy cover, it does not promote the growth of the herbaceous ground layer like fire does (Gorman et al. 2013). Mechanical removal of woody vegetation should, therefore, primarily be used as a way to begin restoration of these wetlands in preparation for future fires (Gorman et al. 2013, USFWS 2020). Creation of dense pine plantations, bedding, creating fire lanes around breeding wetlands, clearcutting, and disturbing the ground surface should all be strictly avoided to maintain optimal vegetation and hydrological characteristics of these natural communities (Means et al. 1996, Gorman et al. 2009, Gorman et al. 2013, USFWS 2020). The increasing likelihood of droughts due to human-induced climate change means providing improvements in water retention at these ponds could be crucial for the future of this species, which requires water be present for a minimum of approximately 15 weeks during the late fall to early spring (Palis et al. 2006, Gorman et al. 2009, USFWS 2020, Chandler et al. 2023, Chandler et al. 2024). The levees at St. Marks National Wildlife Refuge should be modified to improve natural hydrological conditions in the face of increasing storm surge risk from hurricanes (Walls et al. 2019, USFWS 2020).","impacts":null,"restorationPotential":"Recovery is directly linked with the ability to preserve existing habitat and restore degraded habitat. Given the drastic decline in the extent of longleaf pine-dominated communities (Ware et al. 1993), elevation of flatwoods salamander populations above present levels is unlikely. Restoration of degraded mesic, seasonally inundated longleaf pine flatwoods and savannas has not been attempted, and may only be feasible in cases where soil disturbance is minimal. The effectiveness of reintroduction into areas where extirpated is unknown.","siteConservationPlansConsidered":"High quality occurrences include several wetlands within a matrix of pine flatwoods and savanna. Based on the maximum distance adults are known to travel between reproductive and nonreproductive habitat (1.7 km), each breeding site should be surrounded by at least 10 sq km of terrestrial habitat. Long-term perpetuation of a viable population of flatwoods salamanders will presumably require protection of a larger area of terrestrial habitat encompassing a suite of alternative breeding sites (Travis 1994). A suite of wetlands guards against extirpation at any one breeding site, since animals can immigrate from nearby wetlands. The minimum viable population size needed to sustain a population longterm is not known. Preliminary drift fence data at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida, suggests that breeding population sizes are low relative to other <i>Ambystoma </i>(Palis, unpubl. data). However, this may be a site specific observation as larger breeding migrations have been observed elsewhere in the range (R. Moulis, pers. comm.). Presently, there is no method of assessing an occurrence based on the number of animals captured at a drift fence or the number of larvae inhabiting a breeding site.","managementMethods":"Maintenance of intact mesic longleaf pine-wiregrass flatwoods and ephemeral wetlands by mimicking natural forces, such as lightning-season fire, is the most appropriate form of management. On sites where timber extraction is practiced, several precautions should be taken to limit the impact to flatwoods salamanders. Tree harvest should be restricted to dry periods to prevent soil compaction and rutting. Clearcutting should be replaced with selective timber harvest and natural regeneration enhanced by fire, particularly lightning-season fire. If off-site species such as slash pine have been planted, they should be removed and replaced with longleaf pine at densities found in nature. Mechanical preparation of the soil should be avoided. If a site supports mature, closed-canopy pine plantations, they should be thinned with as little disturbance to the soil and remaining groundcover as possible. The natural hydrology and fire regime of terrestrial and aquatic habitats should be restored on sites where altered.<br/><br/>The wetland/upland ecotone appears to be critical to successful flatwoods salamander reproduction. Some areas are in need of periodic burning to clear encroaching shrubby vegetation that shades out herbaceous ground cover (Palis and Jensen 1995). Maintenance of a graminaceous ecotone and breeding site will require burning in the lightning-season when wetlands are dry or nearly dry (Huffman and Blanchard 1990). Bury et al. (1980) recommended that wiregrass not be burned in winter (destructive to wiregrass [used for egg attachment] and possibly to salamanders directly).<br/><br/>Mechanical disturbance of the wetland-upland ecotone should be avoided. The practice of \"protecting\" wetlands by encircling them with plow line should be abandoned. Where present, berms should be removed and drainage ditches filled.<br/><br/>Breeding ponds should not be dredged or stocked with fishes.","monitoringMethods":"The simplest and most inexpensive means of monitoring flatwoods salamanders is dipnet surveys of larval habitat. A 4-mm mesh nylon dipnet, manufactured by Mid-Lakes Corporation, Knoxville, Tennessee (net no. SH-2), has been successfully utilized for larval sampling in Florida (Palis, unpubl. data). Larval surveys are most successful during the latter half of February and the first half of March (J. Palis, pers. obs.), although sampling in other months may be as productive depending upon rainfall patterns and wetland hydrology. Larvae are most readily captured by sweeping a dipnet through inundated graminaceous vegetation by day or night (J. Palis, pers. obs.). Several dipnetting techniques will capture larvae. The net can be swept back and forth through inundated vegetation in a Z or S pattern. A second method involves submerging the bag of the net adjacent to the vegetation to be sampled, agitating the vegetation by foot or hand toward the net, and then thrusting the net through the vegetation in the opposite direction. In addition, multiple parallel dipnet sweeps can be made in the same direction. Because flatwoods salamander larvae occur in low densities (Sekerak 1994), an average of 50 meter-long dipnet sweeps are required to capture the first larva (Palis, unpubl. data). <br/><br/>Because flatwoods salamander larvae will enter the enter water column at night (J. Palis, pers. obs.), nocturnal transects using a flashlight can provide an estimation of the larval density. However, this technique is only applicable to wetlands having little herbaceous vegetation and relatively clear water. Minnow trapping (Gee 6-mm wire mesh funnel trap) has been used with limited success. Methods of quantifying larval sampling were described by Shaffer et al. (1994). <br/><br/>The population breeding at a particular wetland can be monitored by the use of a drift fence and traps. To obtain an accurate estimate of the population size, the entire breeding site must be encircled with a drift fence. Drift fences with traps have proven to be excellent means of surveying amphibian movement into and out of breeding sites (Gibbons and Semlitsch 1981). Because the water table at flatwoods salamander breeding sites is high, aluminum window screen funnel traps are required. Drift fencing is most productive between October and December when flatwoods salamanders are at the surface moving to and from breeding sites (Palis unpubl. data).","managementProgramContacts":null,"monitoringProgramContacts":"Annual larval surveys of known breeding sites have been conducted on the Apalachicola National Forest, Liberty County, Florida. Contact: John Palis, RR 1, Box 258, Tell City, Indiana 47586 (812-836-4216).","managementResearchPrograms":"The annual variation in pond usage is being examined with larval surveys on the Apalachicola National Forest, Liberty County, Florida. Contact: John Palis, RR 1, Box 258, Tell City, Indiana 47586 (812-836-4216).","managementResearchNeeds":"Development of a quantitative means of using surveys of larvae to indicate the size of the adult breeding population is needed.<br/><br/>Demographic data are needed to better understand the natural history and, in particular, factors that limit population size (e.g., egg, larval, and metamorph survivorship; competition with other species).<br/><br/>Long-term drift-fence studies are needed at several nearby sites to examine inter-pond salamander movement and to delineate the range of natural population fluctuations.<br/><br/>More information is needed on the extent of upland habitat required to support a population breeding in a particular pond. Radiotelemetry or radioactive tagging of adults could be used to address this need.<br/><br/>Effects on salamander populations of different forms of resource management and of anthropogenic habitat disturbance need to be examined (Palis and Jensen 1995).","biologicalResearchNeeds":null,"additionalTopics":null},"occurrenceViabilities":[{"eoRankSpecsDetailId":178387,"eoRankSpecsGroupName":null,"locationUseClass":{"id":1,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Not applicable","locationUseClassDescEs":"No se aplica","locationUseClassDescFr":"Sans objet","displayOrder":1},"excellentViability":null,"goodViability":null,"fairViability":null,"poorViability":null,"viabilityJustification":"Use the Generic Guidelines for the Application of Occurrence Ranks (2008).<br>The Key for Ranking Species Occurrences Using the Generic Approach provides a step-wise process for implementing this method.","versionDate":null,"versionAuthor":null,"versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2020-05-14T05:24:38.401461Z"}],"references":[{"id":139604,"citation":"Anderson, J. 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John Wiley and Sons, New York.","shortCitationAuthor":"Ware et al.","shortCitationYear":1993,"referenceCode":"A93WAR02NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:16:29.464043Z"},{"id":1153315,"citation":"Westervelt, J. D., J. H. Sperry, J. L. Burton, and J. G. Palis. 2013. Modeling response of frosted flatwoods salamander populations to historic and predicted climate variables. Ecological Modelling 268: 18-24. doi: 10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2013.07.026","shortCitationAuthor":"Westervelt et al.","shortCitationYear":2013,"referenceCode":"A13WES01NAUS","lastModified":"2025-05-31T04:20:14.524411Z"},{"id":447482,"citation":"Whiles, M. R., J. B. Jensen, J. G. Palis, and W. G. Dyer. 2004. Diets of larval flatwoods salamanders, <i>Ambystoma cingulatum</i>, from Florida and South Carolina. Journal of Herpetology 38:208-214.","shortCitationAuthor":"Whiles et al.","shortCitationYear":2004,"referenceCode":"A04WHI02NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T19:35:49.989672Z"},{"id":1153283,"citation":"Williams, S. T., J. P. Elbers, and S. S. Taylor. 2021. Population structure, gene flow, and sex- biased dispersal in the reticulated flatwoods salamander (<i>Ambystoma bishopi</i>): implications for translocations. Evolutionary Applications 14: 2231–2243. doi: 10.1111/eva.13287","shortCitationAuthor":"Williams et al.","shortCitationYear":2021,"referenceCode":"A21WIL02NAUS","lastModified":"2025-05-31T04:00:53.640118Z"}],"otherCommonNames":[{"id":130130,"name":"Flatwoods Salamander","language":"EN"},{"id":144152,"name":"frosted flatwoods salamander","language":"EN"}],"speciesGlobal":{"elementGlobalId":802301,"cites":null,"cosewic":null,"fwsRegion":{"id":4,"fwsRegionDescEn":"Southeast","fwsRegionDescEs":"Sureste","fwsRegionDescFr":"Sud-Est"},"genusSize":{"id":4,"genusSizeDescEn":"Medium to large genus","genusSizeDescEs":"Género de mediano a grande","genusSizeDescFr":"Moyen à grand genre"},"jurisEndem":{"id":3,"jurisEndemDescEn":"endemic to a single nation","jurisEndemDescEs":"Endémico de una nación","jurisEndemDescFr":"Endémique à une nation"},"nomenclaturallyEst":null,"usesa":{"id":2,"usesaDescEn":"Threatened","usesaDescEs":"Catalogado como amenazado","usesaDescFr":"Menacée","usesaCode":"T"},"informalTaxonomy":{"informalTaxonomyId":3,"level1":"Animals","level2":"Vertebrates","level3":"Amphibians","level":3,"hasChildren":false,"parentId":2,"distributionStatus":"complete","displayOrder":1060},"parentSpecies":null,"infraspecies":false,"kingdom":"Animalia","phylum":"Craniata","taxclass":"Amphibia","taxorder":"Caudata","family":"Ambystomatidae","genus":"Ambystoma","americanFisheriesStatus":null,"americanFisheriesStatusDate":null,"saraStatus":null,"saraStatusDate":null,"cosewicDate":null,"interpretedCosewic":null,"cosewicComments":null,"usesaDate":"1999-04-01","interpretedUsesa":null,"usesaComments":"In 2023, USFWS initiated a 5-year status review.","completeDistribution":true,"synonyms":[],"infraspeciesList":[],"ebarId":null,"ebarCanadianScope":false,"ebarGlobalScope":false,"ebarKbaGroup":"Amphibians and Reptiles","caGeneralStatusId":null},"speciesCharacteristics":{"elementGlobalId":802301,"reproductionComments":"The following information pertains to the <i>Ambystoma </i><i>cingulatum</i>-<i>bishopi</i><i> </i>complex as a whole.<br/><br/>Movements to breeding ponds occur usually between early October and January during rainy evenings when the barometric pressure is falling (Ashton 1992). In Florida, salamanders that entered and exited the breeding site only once remained in the basin an average of 38 days (range 3-117 days) (Palis 1997). Individual females lay up to 225 eggs (Ashton 1992) singly or in small clusters, with larger individuals producing more eggs than smaller ones (Anderson and Williamson 1976). Eggs are laid terrestrially before depressions fill with water; The eggs develop to hatching size within three weeks, but do not hatch until inundated (Anderson and Williamson 1976). The larval period lasts three to four months (11-18 weeks) (Means 1986, Palis and Jensen 1995). Metamorphs emigrate from their natal ponds during the months of March and April (J. Palis, pers. obs.). In captivity, adult size can be reached within one year (Means 1972). Preliminary field data, however, suggest that full size is not attained until the third or fourth year in the wild (Palis, unpubl. data). Although not much bigger than metamorphs, males attain sexual maturity in their first year (Palis 1997). Females, however, do not sexually mature until at least two years old (Palis and Jensen 1995, Palis 1997). Generation length is presumed to be about 8 years.","ecologyComments":null,"habitatComments":"The following information pertains to the <i>Ambystoma cingulatum-bishopi</i> complex as a whole. Post-larval individuals inhabit mesic longleaf pine (<i>Pinus palustris</i>)-wiregrass (<i>Aristida stricta</i>) flatwoods and savannas. The terrestrial habitat is best described as a topographically flat or slightly rolling wiregrass-dominated grassland having little to no midstory and an open overstory of widely scattered longleaf pine. Low-growing shrubs, such as saw palmetto (<i>Serenoa repens</i>), gallberry (<i>Ilex glabra</i>) and blueberries (<i>Vaccinium </i>spp.), co-exist with grasses and forbs in the groundcover. Groundcover plant diversity is usually very high. The underlying soil is typically poorly drained sand that becomes seasonally inundated.<br/><br/>Slash pine flatwoods is often cited as the preferred terrestrial habitat of the flatwoods salamander (e.g., Conant and Collins 1991). This may be the result of an error made by Martof (1968) in which he referred to longleaf pine as slash pine (<i>Pinus elliottii</i>). In addition, slash pine now dominates or co-occurs with longleaf pine in many pine flatwoods communities as a result of fire suppression and preferential harvest of longleaf pine (Avers and Bracy 1975). Historically, however, fire-tolerant longleaf pine dominated the flatwoods, whereas slash pine was confined principally to wetlands (Harper 1914, Avers and Bracy 1975). Post-larval individuals are fossorial (live underground) and occupy burrows (Goin 1950, Neill 1951, Mount 1975, Ashton 1992). Presumably, they remain underground during the lightning-season (May through September). Adults are rarely encountered under cover objects at or near breeding sites (J. Palis, pers. obs.).<br/><br/>Breeding occurs in acidic (pH 3.6-5.6 (Palis, unpubl. data)), tannin-stained ephemeral wetlands (swamps or graminoid-dominated depressions) that range in size from 0.02 to 9.5 ha, and are usually not more than 0.5 m deep (Palis, unpubl. data). The overstory is typically dominated by pond cypress (<i>Taxodium ascendens</i>), blackgum (<i>Nyssa sylvatica</i> var. <i>biflora</i>) and slash pine, but can also include red maple (<i>Acer rubrum</i>), sweetgum (<i>Liquidambar styraciflua</i>), sweetbay (<i>Magnolia virginiana</i>), and loblolly bay (<i>Gordonia lasianthus</i>). Canopy coverage ranges from near zero to almost 100% (Palis, unpubl. data). The midstory, which is often very dense, is most often composed of young of the aforementioned species, myrtle-leaved holly (<i>Ilex myrtifolia</i>), Chapman's St. John's-wort (<i>Hypericum chapmanii</i>), sandweed (<i>Hypericum fasciculatum</i>), titi (<i>Cyrilla racemiflora</i>), storax (<i>Styrax americana</i>), popash (<i>Fraxinus caroliniana</i>), sweet pepperbush (<i>Clethra alnifolia</i>), fetterbush (<i>Lyonia lucida</i>), vine-wicky (<i>Pieris phillyreifolia</i>), and bamboo-vine (<i>Smilax laurifolia</i>). Depending on closure of the canopy and midstory, the herbaceous groundcover of breeding sites can range from about 5% to nearly 100% (Palis, unpubl. data). The groundcover is dominated by graminaceous species, including beakrushes (<i>Rhynchospora </i>spp.), sedges (<i>Carex </i>spp.), panic grasses (<i>Panicum </i>spp.), bluestems (<i>Andropogon </i>spp.), jointtails (<i>Manisurus </i>spp.), three-awned grass (<i>Aristida affinis</i>), plumegrass (<i>Erianthus giganteus</i>), nutrush (<i>Sclera baldwinii</i>) and yellow-eyed grasses (<i>Xyris </i>spp.). The floor of breeding sites is riddled with the burrows of crayfish (genus <i>Procambarus</i>). Breeding sites are typically encircled by a wiregrass-dominated graminaceous ecotone. Breeding sites can include roadside ditches (Anderson and Williamson 1976; Palis, pers. obs.) and borrow pits (D. Stevenson, pers. comm.). Breeding sites often harbor fishes, the most typical species include pygmy sunfishes (<i>Elassoma </i>spp.), mosquitofish (<i>Gambusia holbrookii</i>), and banded sunfish (<i>Enneacanthus obesus</i>) (Palis, unpubl. data). Favorable breeding habitat lacks large predatory fishes.<br/><br/>Before breeding sites fill with water, eggs are deposited singly or in small groups on the ground beneath leaf litter, under logs and <i>Sphagnum </i>mats, at the base of grasses, shrubs or trees, or at the entrance to crayfish burrows (Anderson and Williamson 1976). In wetlands that fill incrementally, eggs are deposited amid graminaceous vegetation at the edge (J. Palis, pers. obs.). Egg deposition in shallow water also has been reported (Ashton 1992). Larvae hide amid inundated graminaceous vegetation by day, but will enter the water column at night (J. Palis, pers. obs.).","generalDescription":"The following information pertains to the <i>Ambystoma </i><i>cingulatum</i>-<i>bishopi</i><i> </i>complex as a whole.<br/><br/>A black salamander with variable gray or grayish dorsal markings that may form a \"frosted\" or netlike pattern or narrow light rings. Belly is black with scattered or many small gray spots. Total length 9-13 cm (Conant and Collins 1991). Larvae are long and slender, with very slender legs and fragile tail fins; body is black to brown with white to yellow stripes (Ashton 1992).<br/><br/>A moderately-sized (up to 76 mm snout-vent length, 135 mm total length; Palis unpubl. data), slender salamander with a relatively small, pointed head and stout tail, weighing from 4.5 - 10.5 grams (adult male and gravid female, respectively (Palis unpubl. data)). The body is black to chocolate-black with fine, irregular, light gray lines that form a net-like or cross-banded pattern across the back. In some individuals the gray pigment is widely scattered and \"lichen-like.\" Melanistic, uniformly black individuals are occasionally encountered (Carr 1940). The belly is black to chocolate-black with a scattering of gray spots or flecks.<br/><br/>The broad-headed, boldly striped pond-type larva can attain a snout-vent length of 47 mm and total length of 96 mm before metamorphosis (Palis unpubl. data). The striping pattern, from mid-dorsum down the sides, is as follows: pale tan mid-dorsal stripe, grayish-black dorsolateral stripe, pale cream mid-lateral stripe, blue-black lateral stripe, and pale yellow ventrolateral stripe. A black stripe extends from the snout, through the eyes, to the base of the gills. A second dark stripe, extending along the upper jaw, is typically present, as well.<br/><br/>Although sexual dimorphism is not pronounced, males can be distinguished from females during the breeding season by their slightly swollen cloaca (pers. obs.). In addition, mature gravid females are heavier and more robust than males at this time (pers. obs.).","diagnosticCharacteristics":"Adults may be confused with the slimy salamander (<i>Plethodon grobmani</i>), small-mouthed salamander (<i>Ambystoma texanum</i>), or Mabee's salamander (<i>Ambystoma mabeei</i>). Slimy salamanders are readily distinguished by the presence of a small groove (nasolabial groove) from the nostril to upper lip (absent in all <i>Ambystoma</i>). <i>Ambystoma texanum </i>(smallmouth salamander) overlaps the range of <i>Ambystoma cingulatum</i> in extreme southwestern Alabama. Small-mouthed salamanders have a very short, rounded snout and, in Alabama, are brown or dark gray with lichen-like light blotches (Mount 1975). In South Carolina, <i>Ambystoma cingulatum</i> has been observed breeding in the same wetland as <i>Ambystoma mabeei</i> (Anderson and Williamson 1976). The body of Mabee's salamander is dark brown or black with pale specks that are concentrated along the sides.<br/><br/>Although the flatwoods salamander larval pattern is distinctive, two other <i>Ambystoma </i>larvae may appear similar to the untrained eye. Like <i>Ambystoma cingulatum</i>, <i>Ambystoma mabeei</i> larvae have a light mid-lateral stripe between two dark lateral stripes. However, unlike the continuous lateral stripes of <i>Ambystoma cingulatum</i>, those of <i>Ambystoma mabeei</i> are broken into blotches (Hardy and Olmon 1974). In addition, the stripe extending from the snout to the gills in <i>Ambystoma mabeei</i> is diffuse and indistinct, and the upper lip stripe is replaced by a series of spots (Hardy and Olmon 1974). Larval mole salamanders (<i>Ambystoma talpoideum</i>) may have an indistinct, light mid-lateral stripe, but are readily distinguished from <i>Ambystoma cingulatum</i> larvae by the presence of a dark mid-ventral stripe and dark dorsal crossbands (pers. obs.). The light mid-lateral stripe of larval <i>Ambystoma cingulatum</i> is retained by metamorphs through their first year (pers. obs.). It is best observed by shining a bright light through the body.","speciesMarineHabitats":[],"speciesTerrestrialHabitats":[{"cagTerrHabId":-112490,"terrestrialHabitat":{"id":23,"terrestrialHabitatDescEn":"Forest/Woodland","terrestrialHabitatDescEs":"Bosque/Tierras forestales ","terrestrialHabitatDescFr":"Forêt/terrain boisé","displayOrder":1}},{"cagTerrHabId":-112399,"terrestrialHabitat":{"id":2,"terrestrialHabitatDescEn":"Forest - Conifer","terrestrialHabitatDescEs":"Bosque - Conífera","terrestrialHabitatDescFr":"Forêt — Résineux","displayOrder":3}},{"cagTerrHabId":-112400,"terrestrialHabitat":{"id":5,"terrestrialHabitatDescEn":"Woodland - Conifer","terrestrialHabitatDescEs":"Lote de madera - Conífera","terrestrialHabitatDescFr":"Terrain boisé — Résineux","displayOrder":7}},{"cagTerrHabId":-112401,"terrestrialHabitat":{"id":8,"terrestrialHabitatDescEn":"Savanna","terrestrialHabitatDescEs":"Sabana","terrestrialHabitatDescFr":"Savane","displayOrder":10}}],"speciesRiverineHabitats":[],"speciesPalustrineHabitats":[{"cagPalusHabId":-103625,"palustrineHabitat":{"id":1,"palustrineHabitatDescEn":"TEMPORARY POOL","palustrineHabitatDescEs":"PISCINA TEMPORAL","palustrineHabitatDescFr":"BASSIN TEMPORAIRE","displayOrder":1}},{"cagPalusHabId":-103626,"palustrineHabitat":{"id":2,"palustrineHabitatDescEn":"HERBACEOUS WETLAND","palustrineHabitatDescEs":"HUMEDAL HERBÁCEO","palustrineHabitatDescFr":"TERRE HUMIDE HERBACÉE","displayOrder":2}},{"cagPalusHabId":-103627,"palustrineHabitat":{"id":3,"palustrineHabitatDescEn":"SCRUB-SHRUB WETLAND","palustrineHabitatDescEs":"HUMEDAL DE MATORRALES","palustrineHabitatDescFr":"FRUTICÉE HUMIDE","displayOrder":3}},{"cagPalusHabId":-103628,"palustrineHabitat":{"id":4,"palustrineHabitatDescEn":"FORESTED WETLAND","palustrineHabitatDescEs":"HUMEDAL BOSCOSO","palustrineHabitatDescFr":"TERRE HUMIDE FORESTIÈRE","displayOrder":4}},{"cagPalusHabId":-103743,"palustrineHabitat":{"id":6,"palustrineHabitatDescEn":"Riparian","palustrineHabitatDescEs":"Ribereño","palustrineHabitatDescFr":"Riverain","displayOrder":6}}],"speciesLacustrineHabitats":[{"cagLacusHabId":-101182,"lacustrineHabitat":{"id":2,"lacustrineHabitatDescEn":"Shallow water","lacustrineHabitatDescEs":"Aguas poco profundas","lacustrineHabitatDescFr":"Eau peu profonde","displayOrder":2}}],"speciesSubterraneanHabitats":[],"speciesEstuarineHabitats":[]},"primaryReference":{"id":1153425,"citation":"Nicholson, K. E. (ed.). 2025. Scientific and Standard English Names of Amphibians and Reptiles of North America North of Mexico, with Comments Regarding Confidence in Our Understanding. Ninth Edition. Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles. 87 pp. Online database available at: https://cnah.org/SSARnames.aspx","shortCitationAuthor":"Nicholson","shortCitationYear":2025,"referenceCode":"B25NIC01NAUS","lastModified":"2026-06-06T01:36:32.018241Z"},"predecessors":[{"predecessorId":102013,"elCode":"AAAAA01220","name":"Ambystoma cingulatum","formattedName":"<i>Ambystoma cingulatum</i>","classficationCode":null,"uniqueId":"ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.105681","lineageDate":null,"nsxUrl":null}],"elementGlobalThreatAssessments":[{"elementGlobalThreatAssessId":15160,"iucnThreatCategory":{"id":5,"iucnThreatCategoryCd":"2","iucnThreatCategoryDescEn":"Agriculture & aquaculture","iucnThreatCategoryDescEs":null,"iucnThreatCategoryDescFr":null,"displayValueEn":"2 - Agriculture & aquaculture","displayValueEs":null,"displayValueFr":null,"displayOrder":50,"iucnThreat":"Y","parentThreatId":null,"iucnThreatLevel":1},"iucnThreatScope":{"id":7,"iucnThreatScopeDescEn":"Large - restricted","iucnThreatScopeDescEs":null,"iucnThreatScopeDescFr":null,"displayValueEn":"Large - 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