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Carolina","nameEs":"Carolina del Norte","nameFr":"Caroline du Nord","subnationCode":"NC","dnationId":225},"roundedSRank":"S3","dataSensitive":{"id":2,"dataSensitiveDescEn":"No","dataSensitiveDescEs":null,"dataSensitiveDescFr":null,"dataSensitiveCode":"N"},"dataSensitiveCategory":null,"srank":"S3","speciesSubnational":{"elementSubnationalId":633346,"hybrid":false,"exotic":false,"native":true}}],"nrankReviewYear":null,"nrank":"N5?","speciesNational":{"elementNationalId":211196,"exotic":true,"native":true}}],"lastModified":"2026-10-03T04:02:04.304765Z","lastPublished":"2026-10-03T02:45:59.472058Z","promotionalDescription":null,"conceptLineageSummary":null,"nsxUrl":"/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.134146/Phragmites_australis","grankAdjustmentReasons":null,"grankChangeDate":"1988-04-28","grankReviewDate":"2016-05-16","grankReasons":"Nearly cosmopolitan as a presumably native plant in marshes and other wetland habitats on all continents except Antarctica. Additionally, at least in North America, non-native genotypes may have become established in areas not previously supporting Phragmites.","grank":"G5","rankInfo":{"elementGlobalId":134146,"aooPercentGood":null,"enviromentalSpecificity":null,"intrinsicVulnerability":{"id":6,"intrinsicVulnerabilityDescEn":"Not intrinsically vulnerable","intrinsicVulnerabilityDescEs":"No intrínsecamente vulnerable","intrinsicVulnerabilityDescFr":"Non intrinsèquement vulnérable"},"longTermTrend":null,"numberEos":{"id":14,"numberEosDescEn":"81 to >300","numberEosDescEs":"De 81 a >300","numberEosDescFr":"De 81 à >300"},"numberGoodEos":null,"numberProtEos":{"id":14,"numberProtEosDescEn":"Many to very many (13 to >40) occurrences appropriately protected and managed","numberProtEosDescEs":"De varios a muchos casos (13 a >40) adecuadamente protegidos y controlados","numberProtEosDescFr":"De plusieurs à beaucoup d’occurrences (de 13 à >40) protégées et contrôlées convenablement"},"popSize":{"id":33,"popSizeDescEn":"10,000 to >1,000,000 individuals","popSizeDescEs":"De 10.000 a >1.000.000 de individuos","popSizeDescFr":"De 10 000 à >1 000 000 individus"},"rangeExtent":{"id":35,"rangeExtentDescEn":">2,500,000 square km (greater than 1,000,000 square miles)","rangeExtentDescEs":">2.500.000 kilómetros cuadrados (más ","rangeExtentDescFr":">2 500 000 km carrés (plus de 1 000 000 miles carrés)"},"shortTermTrend":{"id":44,"shortTermTrendDescEn":"Increase of >10%","shortTermTrendDescEs":"Aumento de >10%.","shortTermTrendDescFr":"Augmentation de >10 %"},"threatImpactAssigned":null,"rangeExtentComments":"Phragmites australis is found on every continent except Antarctica and may have the widest distribution of any flowering plant (Tucker 1990). It is common in and near freshwater, brackish and alkaline wetlands in the temperate zones world-wide. It may also be found in some tropical wetlands but is absent from the Amazon Basin and central Africa. It is widespread in the United states, typically growing in marshes, swamps, fens, and prairie potholes, usually inhabiting the marsh-upland interface where it may form continuous belts (Roman et al. 1984). <br><br>Because Phragmites has invaded and formed near-monotypic stands in some North American wetlands only in recent decades there has been some debate as to whether it is indigenous to this continent or not. Convincing evidence that it was here long before European contact is now available from at least two sources. Niering and Warren (1977) found remains of Phragmites in cores of 3000 year old peat from tidal marshes in Connecticut. Identifiable Phragmites remains dating from 600 to 900 A.D. and constituting parts of a twined mat and other woven objects were found during archaeological investigations of Anasazi sites in southwestern Colorado (Kane & Gross 1986; Breternitz et al. 1986). <br><br>There is some suspicion that although the species itself is indigenous to North America, new, more invasive genotype(s) were introduced from the Old World (Metzler and Rosza 1987). Hauber et al. (1991) found that invasive Phragmites populations in the Mississippi River Delta differed genetically from a more stable population near New Orleans. They also examined populations elsewhere on the Gulf coast, from extreme southern Texas to the Florida panhandle, and found no genetic differences between those populations and the one near New Orleans (Hauber, pers. comm. 1992). This increased their suspicion that the invasive biotypes were introduced to the Delta from somewhere outside the Gulf relatively recently. <br><br>Phragmites is frequently regarded as an aggressive, unwanted invader in the East and Upper Midwest. It has also earned this reputation in the Mississippi River Delta of southern Louisiana, where over the last 50 years, it has displaced species that provided valuable forage for wildlife, particularly migratory waterfowl (Hauber 1991). In other parts of coastal Louisiana, however, it is feared that Phragmites is declining as a result of increasing saltwater intrusion in the brackish marshes it occupies. Phragmites is apparently decreasing in Texas as well due to invasion of its habitat by the alien grass ARUNDO DONAX (Poole, pers. comm. 1985). Similarly, Phragmites is present in the Pacific states but is not regarded as a problem there. In fact, throughout the western U.S. there is some concern over decreases in the species' habitat and losses of populations.","areaOfOccupancy":null,"areaOfOccupancyComments":null,"numberEosComments":"Perhaps the most widespread plant species on Earth, with numerous large, presumably native stands on all continents except Antarctica. In addition, at least in North America, novel (Eurasian?) genotypes have become widely established along the Atlantic Coast and in scattered inland sites where Phragmites was not previously known historically (Kristin Saltonstall, presentation to Botanical Society of Washington, 5 June 2001).","popSizeComments":"Often but not always community dominant in larger occurrences (some of these non-native), but at lower density in some habitats. Intensely cloning, so genetic diversity at sites is much lower (Saltonstall, unpubl., 2001).","viabilityComments":null,"threatImpactComments":"IMPACTS (THREATS POSED BY THIS SPECIES) <br><br>Phragmites can be regarded as a stable, natural component of a wetland community if the habitat is pristine and the population does not appear to be expanding. Many native populations of Phragmites are \"benign\" and pose little or no threat to other species and should be left intact. Examples of areas with stable, native populations include sea-level fens in Delaware and Virginia and along Mattagota Stream in Maine (Rawinski 1985, pers. comm. 1992). In Europe, a healthy reed belt is defined as a \"homogeneous, dense or sparse stand with no gaps in its inner parts, with an evenly formed lakeside borderline without aisles, shaping a uniform fringe or large lobes, stalk length decreasing gradually at the lakeside border, but all stalks of one stand of similar height; at the landside edge the reeds are replaced by sedge or woodland communities or by unfertilized grasslands\" (Ostendorp 1989). <br><br>Stable populations may be difficult to distinguish from invasive populations, but one should examine such factors as site disturbance and the earliest collection dates of the species to arrive at a determination. If available, old and recent aerial photos can be compared to determine whether stands in a given area are expanding or not (Klockner, pers. comm. 1985). <br><br>Phragmites is a problem when and where stands appear to be spreading while other species typical the of the community are diminishing. Disturbances or stresses such as pollution, alteration of the natural hydrologic regime, dredging, and increased sedimentation favor invasion and continued spread of Phragmites (Roman et al. 1984). Other factors that may have favored recent invasion and spread of Phragmites include increases in soil salinity (from fresh to brackish) and/or nutrient concentrations, especially nitrate, and the introduction of a more invasive genotype(s) from the Old World (McNabb and Batterson 1991; Metzler and Rosza 1987, see GLOBAL RANGE section for further discussion). <br><br>Michael Lefor asserts that one reason for the general spread of Phragmites has been the destabilization of the landscape (pers. comm. 1993). In urban landscapes water is apt to collect in larger volumes and pass through more quickly (flashily) than formerly. This tends to destabilize substrates leaving bare soil open for colonization. Watersheds throughout eastern North America are flashier due to the proliferation of paved surfaces, lawns and roofs and the fact that upstream wetlands are largely filled with post-settlement/post agricultural sediments from initial land-clearing operations. <br><br>Many Atlantic coast wetland systems have been invaded by Phragmites as a result of tidal restrictions imposed by roads, water impoundments, dikes and tide gates. Tide gates have been installed in order to drain marshes to harvest salt hay, to control mosquito breeding and, most recently, to protect coastal development from flooding during storms. This alteration of marsh systems may favor Phragmites invasion by reducing tidal action and soil water salinity and lowering water tables. <br><br>Phragmites invasions may threaten wildlife because they alter the structure and function (wildlife support) of relatively diverse Spartina marshes (Roman et al. 1984). This is a problem on many of the eastern coastal National Fish and Wildlife Refuges including: Brigantine in NJ; Prime Hook and Bombay Hook in DE; Tinicum in PA; Chincoteague in VA; and Trustom Pond in RI. <br><br>Plant species and communities threatened by Phragmites are listed in the Monitoring section. Some of these instances are described below: <br><br>1. Massachusetts, a brackish pondlet near Horseneck Beach supports the state rare plant MYRIOPHYLLUM PINNATUM (Walter) BSP, which Phragmites is threatening by reducing the available open water and shading aquatic vegetation (Sorrie, pers. comm. 1985). <br><br>2. Maryland, at Nassawango Creek, a rare coastal plain peatland community is threatened by Phragmites (Klockner, pers. comm. 1985). <br><br>3. Ohio, at the Arcola Creek wetland, phragmites is threatening the state endangered plant CAREX AQUATILIS Wahlenb. (Young, pers. comm. 1985). <br><br>Phragmites invasions also increase the potential for marsh fires during the winter when the above ground portions of the plant die and dry out (Reimer 1973). Dense congregations of redwing blackbirds, which nest in Phragmites stands preferentially, increase chances of airplane accidents nearby. The monitoring and control of mosquito breeding is nearly impossible in dense Phragmites stands (Hellings and Gallagher 1992). In addition, Phragmites invasions can also have adverse aesthetic impacts. In Boston's Back Bay Fens, dense stands have obscured vistas intended by the park's designer, Frederick Law Olmstead (Penko, pers. comm. 1993). <br><br>As noted above Phragmites is not considered a threat in the West or most areas in the Gulf states.","shortTermTrendComments":"Increasing overall in North America, although decreasing at some sites, and some historically known genotypes of New England now possibly extirpated by introduction of more vigorous alien genotypes there (Saltonstall, unpubl., 2001).","longTermTrendComments":null,"inventoryNeeds":"Phragmites populations require close monitoring in order to determine whether they are increasing in area or not. Populations that are growing may quickly threaten or even eliminate rare elements. Monitoring provides the data needed in order to decide if control measures are necessary. If and when a control program is begun it is important to monitor targeted populations so that the program's effectiveness can be determined. If it is possible to leave untreated control areas without jeopardizing the success of the control program these should be monitored as well for comparison. It is imperative to continue monitoring even if a control program succeeds initially because Phragmites may reinvade and the sooner this is detected the easier it will be to combat.","numberProtEosComments":"Native populations present in many protected areas; also, presumably non-native stands a management problem in many other public (and private) areas of eastern U.S.","protectionNeeds":null,"otherConsiderations":null,"intrinsicVulnerabilityComments":null,"enviromentalSpecificityComments":null},"animalCharacteristics":null,"occurrenceDelineations":[{"eoSpecsDetailId":105130,"locationUseClass":{"id":1,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Not applicable","locationUseClassDescEs":"No se aplica","locationUseClassDescFr":"Sans objet","displayOrder":1},"eoSpecGroupName":null,"subtypes":null,"inferredExtentDistance":null,"inferredExtentNotes":null,"minimumEoCriteria":null,"mappingGuidance":null,"separationBarriers":null,"separationDistanceUnsuitableHabitatat":null,"separationDistanceSuitableHabitatat":null,"altSeparationProcedure":"Use the Habitat-based Plant Element Occurrence Delimitation Guidance, 1 October 2004, to develop occurrences.<br>For a complete description of this approach, see the Habitat-Based Strategy for Delimiting Plant Element Occurrences: Guidance from the 2004 Working Group.","separationJustification":null,"versionDate":"2004-10-01","versionAuthor":null,"versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2020-02-25T16:10:00.130984Z"}],"plantCharacteristics":{"elementGlobalId":134146,"genusEconomicValue":false,"economicComments":null,"plantProductionMethods":[],"plantDurations":[{"plantCagDurationId":101004,"duration":{"id":3,"durationDescEn":"PERENNIAL","durationDescEs":"PERENNE","durationDescFr":"VIVACE","displayOrder":3}},{"plantCagDurationId":101537,"duration":{"id":11,"durationDescEn":"SUMMER-FLOWERING","durationDescEs":"FLOR DE VERANO","durationDescFr":"FLORAISON ESTIVALE","displayOrder":11}}],"plantEconomicUses":[],"plantCommercialImportances":[]},"elementManagement":{"elementGlobalId":134146,"eoManagementGroupName":null,"stewardshipOverview":"Communities that have stable Phragmites populations present but have been exposed to disturbance should be closely monitored. Management is necessary when evidence indicates that Phragmites has spread, or is spreading and threatening the integrity of rare communities, invading the habitat of rare plants or animals or interfering with the wildlife support function of refuges. Cutting, burning, application of herbicides (in particular Rodeo), or water management schemes are possible control measures. The measure(s) used will depend on a number of factors including the size and location of the infestation, the presence of sensitive rare species and the work-force available.","impacts":null,"restorationPotential":"Areas that have been invaded by Phragmites have excellent potential for recovery. Management programs have proven that phragmites can be controlled, and natural vegetation will return. However, monitoring is imperative because Phragmites tends to reinvade and control techniques may need to be applied several times or, perhaps, in perpetuity. It is also important to note that some areas have been so heavily manipulated and degraded that it may be impossible to eliminate Phragmites from them. For example, it may be especially difficult to control Phragmites in freshwater impoundments that were previously salt marshes.","siteConservationPlansConsidered":null,"managementMethods":"Invasive populations of Phragmites must be managed in order to protect rare plants that it might outcompete, valued animals whose habitat it might dominate and degrade, and healthy ecosystems that it might greatly alter. <br><br>BIOLOGICAL CONTROL: Biological control does not appear to be an option at this time. No organisms which significantly damage Phragmites australis but do not feed on other plant species have been identified. In addition, some of the arthropods that feed on Phragmites are killed by winter fires and thus would likely be eliminated from the systems where prescribed fires are used. Coots, nutria, and muskrats may feed on Phragmites but appear to have limited impacts on its populations (Cross and Fleming 1989). <br><br>BURNING: Prescribed burning has <br><br>BURNING: Prescribed burning does not reduce the growing ability of Phragmites unless root burn occurs. Root burn seldom occurs, however, because the rhizomes are usually covered by a layer of soil, mud and/or water. Fires in Phragmites stands are dangerous because this species can cause spot-fires over 100 feet away (Beall 1984). Burning does remove accumulated Phragmites leaf litter, giving the seeds of other species area to germinate. <br><br>CHEMICAL: Rodeo TM, a water solution of the isopropylamine salt of glyphosate is commonly used for Phragmites control. This herbicide is not, however, selective and will kill grasses and broadleaved plants alike. Toxicity tests indicate that it is virtually non-toxic to all aquatic animals tested. It should be noted that many of these tests were performed by or for Monsanto, the company which manufactures Rodeo. <br><br>Rodeo must be mixed with water and a surfactant which allows it to stick to and subsequently be absorbed by the plant (Beall 1984). Instructions for application are on the Rodeo label. <br><br>Application of Rodeo must take place after the tasseling stage when the plant is supplying nutrients to the rhizome. <br><br>CUTTING: Cutting has been used successfully to control phragmites. Since it is a grass, cutting several times during a season, at the wrong times, may increase stand density (Osterbrock 1984). However, if cut just before the end of July, most of the food reserves produced that season are removed with the aerial portion of the plant, reducing the plant's vigor. This regime may eliminate a colony if carried out annually for several years. Care must be taken to remove cut shoots to prevent their sprouting and forming stolons (Osterbrock 1984). <br><br>GRAZING, DREDGING, AND DRAINING: Grazing, dredging, and draining are other methods that have often been used to reduce stand vigor (Howard, Rhodes and Simmers 1978). However, draining and dredging are not appropriate for use on most preserves (Osterbrock, 1984). <br><br>Grazing may trample the rhizomes and reduce vigor but the results are limited (Cross and Fleming 1989). Van Deursen and Drost (1990) found that cattle consumed 67-98% of above-ground biomass; in a four year study, they found that reed populations may reach new equilibria under grazing regimes. <br><br>MANIPULATION OF WATER LEVEL AND SALINITY: Reintroduced tidal action and salinity can reduce Phragmites vigor and restore the community's integrity. <br><br>MOWING, DISKING, AND PULLING: Beall (1984) discourages mowing and disking. Mowing only affects the above ground portion of the plant, so mowing would have to occur annually. To remove the rhizome, disking could be employed. However, discing could potentially result in an increase of Phragmites since pieces of the rhizome can produce new plants. Cross and Fleming (1989) describe successful mowing regimes of several year duration during the summer (August and September) and disking in summer or fall.","monitoringMethods":"Phragmites populations require close monitoring in order to determine whether they are increasing in area or not. Populations that are growing may quickly threaten or even eliminate rare elements. Monitoring provides the data needed in order to decide if control measures are necessary. If and when a control program is begun it is important to monitor targeted populations so that the program's effectiveness can be determined. If it is possible to leave untreated control areas without jeopardizing the success of the control program these should be monitored as well for comparison. It is imperative to continue monitoring even if a control program succeeds initially because Phragmites may reinvade and the sooner this is detected the easier it will be to combat. <br><br>To assess if a Phragmites colony is spreading, quantitative measurements should be made of percentage of aerial cover, stem density and culm height, especially at the periphery of the stand. Annual data should be compared to detect if the colony is expanding and the stand gaining vigor. Inventories of the vegetation in and near the colony should also be carried out in order to determine whether declines in species diversity are occurring. <br><br>In Europe, reed declines have been documented by comparing areas covered by Phragmites colonies on up-to-date maps or aerial photographs with older sources, monitoring permanent quadrats within or at the border of the reed belt and mapping the stubble fields left after die-back (Ostendorp 1989). In lakes (Stark and Dienst 1989), wooden poles 5 m apart were connected with string and the numbers of reed stalks directly below the strings were counted each year in the spring.","managementProgramContacts":"BURNING: Prescribed burning has been used with success after chemical treatment at The Brigantine National Wildlife Refuge, NJ (Beall 1984) and in Delaware (Lehman, pers. comm. 1992). Occasional burning has been used in Delaware in conjunction with intensive spraying and water level management. This helps remove old canes and allows other vegetation to grow (Daly, pers. comm. 1991). <br><br>According to Cross and Fleming (1989), late summer burns may be effective, but winter and spring burning may in fact increase the densities of spring crops. <br><br>CHEMICAL: At the Brigantine National Wildlife Refuge, Rodeo was applied aerially after the plants tasseled in late August. The application resulted in a 90% success. The following February, a fast moving prescribed burn was carried out to remove litter, exposing the seed bed for re-establishment of marsh vegetation. <br><br>Aerial spraying has been used since 1983 in many Delaware state wildlife refuges (Lehman, pers. comm. 1992). Using Rodeo, the state sprays freshwater and brackish impoundments, brackish marshes, and salt marshes from early September to early October; this is combined with winter burns between the first and second year of spraying. <br><br>In more fragile situations where Phragmites is threatening a rare plant or community, aerial spray techniques are inappropriate because such large-scale application could kill the community that the entire operation was designed to protect. Glyphosate can be applied to specific plants and areas by hand with a backpack sprayer. Wayne Klockner of The Nature Conservancy's Maryland Field Office has been successful in eliminating most Phragmites at the Nassawango preserve by applying glyphosate by hand with a backpack sprayer (Klockner, pers. comm. 1985). <br><br>CUTTING: In the Arcola Creek Preserve in Ohio, cutting reduced the vigor of the Phragmites colony. <br><br>Cutting an area 25' x 25' to waist height with a hedge clippers and the applying one drop of Roundup with a syringe with a large needle into the top of the plant in a brackish- freshwater marsh was begun in Constitution Marsh in New York in 1991 (Keene, pers. comm. 1991). Initial results indicate 90% eradication. <br><br>MANIPULATION OF WATER LEVEL AND SALINITY: A self-regulating tide gate which reintroduced saltwater tidal action was used to help restore a diked marsh in Fairfield, Connecticut (Thomas Steinke pers. comm. 1992; Bongiorno et al. 1984); plant density declined dramatically the following year. <br><br>Flooding can be used to control Phragmites when 3 feet of water covers the rhizome for an extended period during the growing season, usually four months (Beall 1984). However, many areas can not be flooded to such depths. Furthermore, flooding could destroy the communities or plants targeted for protection. <br><br>Open Marsh Water Management (OMWM) has been used as a method to control Phragmites (Niniviaggi, pers. comm. 1991; Rozsa, pers. comm. 1992).","monitoringProgramContacts":"The programs listed below used various methods to control Phragmites populations and are monitoring the success of these actions including the degree of recovery of native species and the longevity of the control. <br><br>CONNECTICUT Monitoring phragmites reduction and replacement vegetation after reintroducing tidal flow, using transects and line intercept. Contact: Charles T. Roman, William Niering, Scott Warren Dept of Botany Connecticut College New London, CT 06320 <br><br>Monitoring Phragmites reaction to reintroduction of tidal flow and salinity. Contact: Tom Steinke Fairfield Conservation Commission, Independence Hall 725 Old Post Road Fairfield, CT 06430 203-256-3071 <br><br>Annual cutting of perimeter of one-acre stand and monitoring with aerial photos on five-year basis; herbicide application on small patch at edge of salt marsh. Contact: Beth Lapin The Nature Conservancy 55 High Street Middletown, CT 06457 203-344-0716 <br><br>DELAWARE Aerial spraying of RodeoTM (glyphosate) and water management plan using stoplogs and vegetation analyses of replacement species. Contact: Paul Daly Bombay Hook National Wildlife Refuge RD #1 Box 147 Smyrna, DE 19977 302-653-9345 <br><br>Monitoring the ecological factors (water table level, PH, salinity) governing the growth of Phragmites in 4 habitats; 1) open high salt marsh, 2) open low salt marsh, 3) brackish water impoundment, 4) freshwater impoundment. Investigating Phragmites control with glyphosate. Contact: Wayne Lehman and Bill Jones Delaware Division of Fish and Wildlife P.O. Box 1401 Dover, DE 19903 302-653-2079. <br><br>MASSACHUSETTS Cutting three times in one season, followed by opening of tidal flood gate. Contact: Mike Wheelwright Department of Public Works Town of Quincy Quincy, MA 02169 617-773-1380 x210 Contact: Ross Dobberteen Lelito Environmental Consultants 2 Bourbon St. #102 Peabody, MA 01960 508-535-7861 <br><br>MARYLAND Nassawango Creek, A Nature Conservancy Preserve RodeoTM (glyphosate) applied with backpack sprayer. Contact: Wayne Klockner The Nature Conservancy Chevy Chase Center Office Building 35 Wisconsin Circle, Suite 304 Chevy Chase Maryland 20815 301-656-8073 <br><br>Spraying with RodeoTM (glyphosate), burning. Contact: Steve Ailstock Environmental Center Anne Arundel Community College Arnold, MD <br><br>NEW JERSEY Aerial spraying with RodeoTM (glyphosate), prescribed burn to remove litter. Contact: David Beall Edwin B. Forsythe National Wildlife Refuge Brigantine Division PO Box 72, Great Creek RD Oceanville, NJ 08231 609-652-1665 <br><br>Pulling rhizomes, chemical spray. Contact: Liz Johnson The Nature Conservancy 17 Fairmont Road Pottersville, NJ 07979 908-439-3007 NEW YORK: <br><br>Using water level manipulation and burning. Contact: Bob Parris Wertheim NWR P.O. Box 21 Smith Road Shirley, NY 11967 516-286-0485 <br><br>PENNSYLVANIA Chemical application. Contact: Dick Nugent Tinicum Environmental Center Scott Plaza 2 Philadelphia, PA 19113 215-521-0663 <br><br>OHIO Arcola Creek Wetland, Morgan Marsh Controlling Phragmites by cutting. Contact: Terry Seidel The Nature Conservancy Ohio Field Office 1504 West 1st Ave. Columbus, Ohio 43212 614-486-6789 <br><br>VIRGINIA RodeoTM (glyphosate) application and monitoring program. Contact: Irvin Ailes Chincoteague National Wildlife Refuge Chincoteague, VA 23336 804-336-6122 <br><br>Winter burns. Contact: Marilyn Ailes Public Works Office Building Q29 Aegis Combat System Center Wallops Island, VA 23337 804-824-2082","managementResearchPrograms":"LOUISIANA Aerial photographs of the Mississippi River Delta indicated that different stands of Phragmites had different infrared signatures. Isozyme analyses were performed on samples from these stands in order to determine whether they differed genetically and constituted different clones. Two distinct clones were found and both differed from stands elsewhere on the Gulf coast. Additional isozymal work is planned on populations from elsewhere on the Gulf coast and, if time allows, from populations in the eastern and Great Lakes states as well <br><br>For research on population biology and control methods refer to BIOLOGICAL MONITORING PROGRAMS section.","managementResearchNeeds":"Research on the following facets of Phragmites invasions and basic biology are needed: 1. what types and levels of disturbance and stress induce Phragmites to invade and/or dominate an area?; 2. how effective are various control programs and what conditions promote or allow Phragmites to reinvade areas from which it has been removed?; 3. if Phragmites does reinvade how long does this process take?; 4. are there ways to alleviate or mitigate for the stresses that induce the spread of Phragmites?; 5. can the use of competitive plantings of TYPHA or other desirable species be used to control Phragmites.","biologicalResearchNeeds":"What are the genetics of natural populations and how do stable and invasive populations differ?","additionalTopics":null},"occurrenceViabilities":[{"eoRankSpecsDetailId":134734,"eoRankSpecsGroupName":null,"locationUseClass":null,"excellentViability":null,"goodViability":null,"fairViability":null,"poorViability":null,"viabilityJustification":"Use the Generic Guidelines for the Application of Occurrence Ranks (2008).<br>The Key for Ranking Species Occurrences Using the Generic Approach provides a step-wise process for implementing this method.","versionDate":null,"versionAuthor":null,"versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2020-05-14T03:42:50.078011Z"}],"references":[{"id":128627,"citation":"Ailes, I. 1985. 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The influence of environmental factors and management on stands of <i>Phragmites australis</i>. I. Effects of burning, frost and insect damage on shoot density and shoot size. J. Appl. Ecol 19:477-499.","shortCitationAuthor":"van der Toorn and Mook","shortCitationYear":1982,"referenceCode":"A82VAN02HQUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T16:10:00.177871Z"},{"id":116250,"citation":"van Deursen, E. J. M., and H. J. Drost. 1990. Defoliation and treading by cattle of reed <i>Phragmites australis</i>. J. Appl. Ecol. 27:284-297.","shortCitationAuthor":"van Deursen and Drost","shortCitationYear":1990,"referenceCode":"A90VAN01HQUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T16:10:00.146685Z"},{"id":147988,"citation":"Weisner, W. E. B., and W. Graneli. 1989. Influence of substrate conditions on the growth of <i>Phragmites australis</i> after a reduction in oxygen trasport to below-ground parts. Aquatic Botany 35:71-80.","shortCitationAuthor":"Weisner and Graneli","shortCitationYear":1989,"referenceCode":"A89WEI01HQUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T16:10:00.130984Z"},{"id":153287,"citation":"Wheelwright, M. 1991. Department of Public Works. Quincy, MA. Telephone conversation with Beth Lapin. November 1991.","shortCitationAuthor":"Wheelwright","shortCitationYear":1991,"referenceCode":"P91WHE01HQUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T16:10:00.162219Z"},{"id":111933,"citation":"Young, J. 1985. Land Steward Florida Field Office, The Nature Conservancy. Telephone conversation with Marianne Marks. May 1985.","shortCitationAuthor":"Young","shortCitationYear":1985,"referenceCode":"P85YOU01HQUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T16:10:00.162219Z"}],"otherCommonNames":[{"id":101755,"name":"Cana de Indio","language":"ES"},{"id":122083,"name":"common reed","language":"EN"},{"id":189512,"name":"Roseau commun","language":"FR"}],"speciesGlobal":{"elementGlobalId":134146,"cites":null,"cosewic":null,"fwsRegion":null,"genusSize":null,"jurisEndem":null,"nomenclaturallyEst":null,"usesa":null,"informalTaxonomy":{"informalTaxonomyId":107,"level1":"Plants","level2":"Vascular Plants - Flowering Plants","level3":"Monocots","level":3,"hasChildren":false,"parentId":106,"distributionStatus":"complete","displayOrder":5410},"parentSpecies":null,"infraspecies":false,"kingdom":"Plantae","phylum":"Anthophyta","taxclass":"Monocotyledoneae","taxorder":"Cyperales","family":"Poaceae","genus":"Phragmites","americanFisheriesStatus":null,"americanFisheriesStatusDate":null,"saraStatus":null,"saraStatusDate":null,"cosewicDate":null,"interpretedCosewic":null,"cosewicComments":null,"usesaDate":null,"interpretedUsesa":null,"usesaComments":null,"completeDistribution":true,"synonyms":[{"id":102788,"synonym":"Phragmites communis","synonymAuthor":"Trin.","formattedSynonym":"<i>Phragmites communis</i>"}],"infraspeciesList":[{"infraspeciesId":734474,"uniqueId":"ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.734474","formattedScientificName":"<i>Phragmites australis </i>ssp. <i>americanus</i>","scientificName":"Phragmites australis ssp. americanus","primaryCommonName":"Common Reed","nsxUrl":"/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.734474/Phragmites_australis_ssp_americanus"},{"infraspeciesId":800788,"uniqueId":"ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.800788","formattedScientificName":"<i>Phragmites australis </i>ssp. <i>australis</i>","scientificName":"Phragmites australis ssp. australis","primaryCommonName":"European Common Reed","nsxUrl":"/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.800788/Phragmites_australis_ssp_australis"},{"infraspeciesId":953500,"uniqueId":"ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.953500","formattedScientificName":"<i>Phragmites australis</i> ssp. <i>berlandieri</i>","scientificName":"Phragmites australis ssp. berlandieri","primaryCommonName":"Subtropical Common Reed","nsxUrl":"/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.953500/Phragmites_australis_ssp_berlandieri"}],"ebarId":null,"ebarCanadianScope":null,"ebarGlobalScope":null,"ebarKbaGroup":"Vascular Plants","caGeneralStatusId":"GS003695"},"speciesCharacteristics":{"elementGlobalId":134146,"reproductionComments":"Phragmites is typically the dominant species on areas that it occupies. It is capable of vigorous vegetative reproduction and often forms dense, virtually monospecific stands. Hara et al. (1993) classify sparse stands as those with densities of less than 100 culms m-2 and dense stands as those with densities of up to about 200 culms m-2 in wet areas or up to 300 culms m-2 in dry areas. Mammalian and avian numbers and diversity in the dense stands are typically low (Jones and Lehman 1987). Newly opened sites may be colonized by seed or by rhizome fragments carried to the area by humans in soils and on machinery during construction or naturally in floodwaters. <br><br>The plants generally flower and set seed between July and September and may produce great quantities of seed. In the northeast, seeds are dispersed between November and January. However, in some cases, most or all of the seed produced is not viable (Tucker 1990). The seeds are normally dispersed by wind but may be transported by birds such as red-winged blackbirds that nest among the reeds (Haslam 1972). Following seed set, nutrients are translocated down into the rhizomes and the above- ground portions of the plant die back for the season (Haslam 1968). <br><br>Temperature, salinity and water levels affect seed germination. Water depths of more than 5 cm and salinities above 20 ppt (2%) prevent germination (Kim et al. 1985; Tucker 1990). Germination is not affected by salinities below 10 ppt (1%) but declines at higher salinities. Percentage germination increases with increasing temperature from 16 to 25 oC while the time required to germinate decreases from 25 to 10 days over the same temperature range. Barry Truitt (pers. comm. 1992) has observed that areas covered by thick mats of wrack washed up during storms and high water events are frequently colonized by Phragmites on the Virginia Coast Reserve. It is not clear whether it establishes from rhizome pieces washed in with the wrack or from seed that blows in later. <br><br>Once a new stand of Phragmites takes hold it spreads, predominantly through vegetative reproduction. Individual rhizomes live for 3 to 6 years and buds develop at the base of the vertical type late in the summer each year. These buds mature and typically grow about 1 meter (up to 10 m in newly colonized, nutrient-rich areas) horizontally before terminating in an upward apex and going dormant until spring. The apex then grows upward into a vertical rhizome which in turn produces buds that will form more vertical rhizomes. Vertical rhizomes also produce horizontal rhizome buds, completing the vegetative cycle. These rhizomes provide the plant with a large absorbent surface that brings the plant nutrients from the aquatic medium (Chuchova and Arbuzoba 1970). The aerial shoots arise from the rhizomes. They are most vigorous at the periphery of a stand where they arise from horizontal rhizomes, as opposed to old verticals (Haslam 1972).","ecologyComments":"Salinity and depth to the water table are among the factors which control the distribution and performance of Phragmites. Maximum salinity tolerances vary from population to population; reported maxima range from 12 ppt (1.2%) in Britain to 29 ppt in New York state to 40 ppt on the Red Sea coast (Hocking et al. 1983). Dense stands normally lose more water through evapotranspiration than is supplied by rain (Haslam 1970). However, rhizomes can reach down almost 2 meters below ground, their roots penetrating even deeper, allowing the plant to reach low lying ground water (Haslam 1970). Killing frosts may knock the plants back temporarily but can ultimately increase stand densities by stimulating bud development (Haslam 1968). <br><br>Phragmites has a low tolerance for wave and current action which can break its culms (vertical stems) and impede bud formation in the rhizomes (Haslam 1970). It can survive, and in fact thrive, in stagnant waters where the sediments are poorly aerated at best (Haslam 1970). Air spaces in the above-ground stems and in the rhizomes themselves assure the underground parts of the plant with a relatively fresh supply of air. This characteristic and the species' salinity tolerance allow it to grow where few others can survive (Haslam 1970). In addition the build up of litter from the aerial shoots within stands prevents or discourages other species from germinating and becoming established (Haslam 1971a). The rhizomes and adventitious roots themselves form dense mats that further discourage competitors. These characteristics are what enable Phragmites to spread, push other species out and form monotypic stands. <br><br>Such stands may alter the wetlands they colonize, eliminating habitat for valued animal species. On the other hand, the abundant cover of litter in Phragmites stands may provide habitat for some small mammals, insects and reptiles. The aerial stems provide nesting sites for several species of birds, and Song Sparrows have been seen eating Phragmites' seeds (Klockner, pers. comm. 1985). Muskrats (ONDATRA ZIBETHICUS) use Phragmites for emergency cover when low lying marshes are swept by storm tides and for food when better habitats are overpopulated (Lynch et al. 1947). <br><br>Studies conducted in Europe indicate that gall-forming and stem- boring insects may significantly reduce growth of Phragmites (Durska 1970; Pokorny 1971). Skuhravy (1978) estimated that roughly one-third of the stems in a stand may be damaged reducing stand productivity by 10-20%. Mook and van der Toorn (1982) found yields were reduced by 25 to 60% in stands heavily infested with lepidopteran stem- or rhizome-borers. Hayden (1947) suggested that aphids (HYALOPTERUS PRUNI) heavily damaged a Phragmites stand in Iowa. On the other hand work in Europe by Pintera (1971) indicated that although high densities of aphids may bring about reductions in Phragmites shoot height and leaf area they had little effect on shoot weight. Like other emergent macrophytes, Phragmites has tough leaves and appears to suffer little grazing by leaf-chewing insects (Penko 1985). <br><br>As mentioned above, there is great concern about recent declines in Phragmites in Europe where the species is still used for thatch. In fact, the journal Aquatic Botany devoted an entire issue (volume 35 no.1, September 1989) to this subject. Factors believed responsible for the declines include habitat destruction and manipulation of hydrologic regimes by humans, grazing, sedimentation and decreased water quality (eutrophication) (Ostendorp 1989). <br><br>Detailed reviews of the ecology and physiological ecology of Phragmites are provided by Haslam (1972; 1973) and Hocking et al. (1983) and an extensive bibliography is provided by van der Merff et al. (1987).","habitatComments":"Phragmites is especially common in alkaline and brackish (slightly saline) environments (Haslam 1972, 1971b), and can also thrive in highly acidic wetlands (Rawinski, pers. comm. 1985). However, Phragmites does not require, nor even prefer these habitats to freshwater areas. Its growth is greater in fresh water but it may be outcompeted in these areas by other species that cannot tolerate brackish, alkaline or acidic waters. It is often found in association with other wetland plants including species from the following genera: SPARTINA, CAREX, NYMPHAEA, TYPHA, GLYCERIA, JUNCUS, MYRICA, TRIGLOCHIN, CALAMAGROSTIS, GALIUM, and PHALARIS (Howard et al. 1978). <br><br>Phragmites occurs in disturbed areas as well as pristine sites. It is especially common along railroad tracks, roadside ditches, and piles of dredge spoil, wherever even slight depressions hold water (Ricciuti 1983). Penko (pers. comm. 1993) has observed stunted Phragmites growing on acidic tailings (Ph 2.9) from an abandoned copper mine in Vermont. Various types of human manipulation and/or disturbance are thought to promote Phragmites (Roman et al. 1984). For example, restriction of the tidal inundation of a marsh may result in a lowering of the water table, which may in turn favor Phragmites. Likewise, sedimentation may promote the spread of Phragmites by elevating a marsh's substrate surface and effectively reducing the frequency of tidal inundation (Klockner, pers. comm. 1985). <br><br>A number of explanations have been proposed to account for the recent dramatic increases in Phragmites populations in the northeastern and Great Lakes States. As noted above, habitat manipulations and disturbances caused by humans are thought to have a role. In some areas Phragmites may also have been promoted by the increases in soil salinity which result when de- icing salt washes off roads and into nearby ditches and wetlands (McNabb and Batterson 1991). On the other hand, bare patches of road sand washed into ditches and wetlands may be of greater importance. Phragmites seeds are shed from November through January and so may be among the first propagules to reach these sites. If the seeds germinate and become established the young plants will usually persist for at least two years in a small, rather inconspicuous stage, resembling many other grasses. Later, perhaps after the input of nutrients, they may take off and assume the tall growth form that makes the species easily identifiable . Increases in soil nutrient concentrations, may come from runoff from farms and urban areas. It has also been suggested increases in nutrient concentrations, especially nitrates, are primarily responsible for increases in Phragmites populations. Ironically, eutrophication and increases in nitrate levels are sometimes blamed for the decline of Phragmites populations in Europe (Den Hartog et al. 1989).","generalDescription":null,"diagnosticCharacteristics":"Members of the genus Phragmites are superficially similar to Arundo. Sterile specimens of P. australis are sometimes misidentified as Arundo donax, a grass introduced to North America from Asia and now troublesome in natural areas, especially in California. The genera can be distinguished when in flower because the glumes of Phragmites are glabrous while those of Arundo are covered with soft, whitish hairs 6-8 mm long. In addition, the glumes are much shorter than the lemmas in Phragmites.","speciesMarineHabitats":[],"speciesTerrestrialHabitats":[{"cagTerrHabId":100506,"terrestrialHabitat":{"id":9,"terrestrialHabitatDescEn":"Grassland/herbaceous","terrestrialHabitatDescEs":"Pastizales/cobertura herbácea","terrestrialHabitatDescFr":"Prairie/couverture herbacée","displayOrder":11}},{"cagTerrHabId":100507,"terrestrialHabitat":{"id":21,"terrestrialHabitatDescEn":"Urban/edificarian","terrestrialHabitatDescEs":"Urbano/edificado","terrestrialHabitatDescFr":"Urbain","displayOrder":24}}],"speciesRiverineHabitats":[],"speciesPalustrineHabitats":[{"cagPalusHabId":110625,"palustrineHabitat":{"id":4,"palustrineHabitatDescEn":"FORESTED WETLAND","palustrineHabitatDescEs":"HUMEDAL BOSCOSO","palustrineHabitatDescFr":"TERRE HUMIDE FORESTIÈRE","displayOrder":4}},{"cagPalusHabId":110626,"palustrineHabitat":{"id":5,"palustrineHabitatDescEn":"Bog/fen","palustrineHabitatDescEs":"Pantanoso","palustrineHabitatDescFr":"Tourbière oligotrophe/marais","displayOrder":5}}],"speciesLacustrineHabitats":[],"speciesSubterraneanHabitats":[],"speciesEstuarineHabitats":[]},"primaryReference":{"id":154408,"citation":"Kartesz, J.T. 1994. A synonymized checklist of the vascular flora of the United States, Canada, and Greenland. 2nd edition. 2 vols. Timber Press, Portland, OR.","shortCitationAuthor":"Kartesz","shortCitationYear":1994,"referenceCode":"B94KAR01HQUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T15:54:02.397953Z"},"predecessors":[],"elementGlobalThreatAssessments":[]}