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E., and D. M. Reeder (editors). 1993. Mammal species of the world: a taxonomic and geographic reference. Second edition. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC. xviii + 1206 pp. Available online at: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/msw/.","conceptName":"<i>Canis rufus</i>","taxonomicComments":"There is ongoing debate over the taxonomic status of the Red Wolf. This database follows the American Society of Mammalogists in recognizing <i>Canis lupus</i>, <i>C. rufus</i>, and <i>C. lycaon</i> in North America (ASM 2025).","roundedGRank":"G1","conservationStatusFactorsEditionDate":"2022-12-05","conservationStatusFactorsEditionAuthors":"Hammerson, G. (2011), Sears, N. 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red wolf is the world’s most endangered wolf. Native to the southeastern United States, these wolves are distinguished from other species by their striking reddish-brown coat. With a lean and agile build, the red wolf is a masterful hunter, primarily preying on small mammals like rabbits and rodents. Sadly, due to habitat loss, hunting, and interbreeding with coyotes, the red wolf population has been severely depleted. Conservation efforts are ongoing to protect and restore these magnificent creatures in their natural habitat and ensure their survival for generations to come.","conceptLineageSummary":null,"nsxUrl":"/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.106386/Canis_rufus","grankChangeDate":"2006-01-25","grankReasons":"Once a common wide-ranging species in the southeastern U.S., the Red Wolf has been largely exterminated due to human persecution and habitat loss, and now exists in a single wild population with 10 known individuals in northeastern North Carolina, plus one island propagation site. The species is rapidly declining due to increasing threats from anthropogenic mortality and Coyote hybridization/introgression. The species is at risk of extirpation in the wild, and recovery and survival will require continuing, long-term management to ensure multiple viable populations are established and recruiting across its historical range.","grankReviewDate":"2022-12-05","grank":"G1","grankAdjustmentReasons":null,"rankInfo":{"elementGlobalId":106386,"aooPercentGood":null,"enviromentalSpecificity":null,"intrinsicVulnerability":null,"longTermTrend":{"id":1,"longTermTrendDescEn":"Decline of >90%","longTermTrendDescEs":"Disminución de >90%.","longTermTrendDescFr":"Diminution de >90 %"},"numberEos":{"id":1,"numberEosDescEn":"1 - 5","numberEosDescEs":"De 1 a 5","numberEosDescFr":"De 1 à 5"},"numberGoodEos":null,"numberProtEos":{"id":6,"numberProtEosDescEn":"Few (1-3) occurrences appropriately protected and managed","numberProtEosDescEs":"Pocos casos (1 a 3) están adecuadamente protegidos y controlados","numberProtEosDescFr":"Peu d’occurrences (de 1 à 3) protégées et contrôlées convenablement"},"popSize":{"id":1,"popSizeDescEn":"1 - 50 individuals","popSizeDescEs":"De 1 a 50 individuos","popSizeDescFr":"De 1 à 50 individus"},"rangeExtent":{"id":26,"rangeExtentDescEn":"5000-20,000 square km (about 2000-8000 square miles)","rangeExtentDescEs":"De 5.000 a 20.000 kilómetros cuadrados (aproximadamente 2.000 a 8.000 millas cuadradas)","rangeExtentDescFr":"De 5 000 à 20 000 km carrés (de 2 000 à 8 000 miles carrés approximativement)"},"shortTermTrend":{"id":11,"shortTermTrendDescEn":"Decline of 70-90%","shortTermTrendDescEs":"Reducción del 70 al 90%.","shortTermTrendDescFr":"Diminution de 70 à 90 %"},"threatImpactAssigned":{"id":6,"threatImpactAssignedDescEn":"High - medium","threatImpactAssignedDescEs":"Alto - medio","threatImpactAssignedDescFr":"Élevé — Moyen"},"rangeExtentComments":"Historically, this species ranged from the southeastern U.S. westward to the Edwards Plateau in Texas, north to the lower Midwest (southeastern Missouri, southern Illinois) and east into southern Pennsylvania and extreme southeastern New York, USA. It is now limited to a single, reintroduced non-essential experimental population (NEP) in eastern North Carolina and captive stock in zoos and nature centers throughout the US (USFWS 2018, 2022). The NEP area is 6,000 square kilometers (2,317 square miles) in Beaufort, Dare, Hyde, Tyrrell, and Washington counties on the Albemarle Peninsula, North Carolina.<br/><br/>A reintroduction effort in Great Smoky Mountains National Park failed, due mainly to poor survival of wild-born offspring and was terminated in 1998. Island propagation populations were established on Bulls Island, Cape Romain NWR (South Carolina) [program closed in 2005], Horn Island (Mississippi) [population removed because of potential for interaction with humans], and St. Vincent NWR (Florida) [the only remaining island propagation site as of 2022].","areaOfOccupancy":null,"areaOfOccupancyComments":null,"numberEosComments":"This species occurs in the wild in one location (plus one island that serves as a propagation area).","popSizeComments":"The Red Wolf Recovery Program provides the following population estimate as of July 2022 (USFWS 2022b):<br/><br/>Known/collared (wild): 10 adult individuals and 6 pups<br/>Total estimate (wild): 19-21 individuals<br/>Species Survival Plan (captive): 243 individuals<br/><br/>Although there were no known pups born in the wild in 2019, 2020, or 2021, a litter of pups was born in 2022 (USFWS 2022).","viabilityComments":null,"threatImpactComments":"Historical decline was due to human persecution (trapping, poisoning), habitat loss, and hybridization with the Coyote. The primary threats today are anthropogenic mortality (e.g., gunshot, vehicle strikes, management mortality, and poisoning) and Coyote hybridization and introgression (Philips 2018, USFWS 2018, 2022). Landowner conflict and difficulty distinguishing Red Wolves from Coyotes continue to cause declines. In addition, individuals released from captivity lack both survival skills (e.g. hunting skills) and fear of humans that puts them at risk in the wild. Other major threats include small population size and associated inbreeding depression, and past ineffective interactions with human communities that led to negative public perception of wolves that could undermine recovery efforts. To a lesser degree, disease and parasites, and intraspecific strife (territorial competition between Red Wolves) can also impact the species. In addition, habitat loss from development and sea level rise associated with climate change are long-term threats (USFWS 2022).","shortTermTrendComments":"The only wild Red Wolf population increased until 2005/2006 and reached its peak of 100-120 individuals, after which it began to decline due to human-caused mortality (e.g. vehicular strikes) and from a lack of both survival skills (e.g. hunting) and fear towards humans upon reintroduction into the wild. This decline accelerated in 2012 when night hunting of Coyotes was allowed (subsequently suspended within the NC NEP). Although a litter of pups was born in 2022 (the first wild litter born since 2018), there are only an estimated 19-21 Red Wolves (10 known) that remain in the wild (USFWS 2022, 2022b).","longTermTrendComments":"Assuming a historical range throughout southeastern North America (e.g. USFWS 2018), the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and abundance of this species have undergone a drastic decline over the long term. Once common, by 1972 the last naturally occurring population was limited to a small coastal area in southeast Texas and southwest Louisiana and it was declared extinct in the wild in1980 until a nonessential experimental population was established in 1986.","inventoryNeeds":null,"numberProtEosComments":"The single population of this species occupies a recovery area of about 6,000 square kilometers (km) (2,317 m2) of federal, state, and private lands in Beaufort, Dare, Hyde, Tyrrell, and Washington Counties, on the Albemarle Peninsula of North Carolina.","protectionNeeds":"Prevent species from being habituated to human contact and teach them predator skills and behaviors. See 2022 draft recovery plan.","otherConsiderations":null,"intrinsicVulnerabilityComments":null,"enviromentalSpecificityComments":null},"animalCharacteristics":{"elementGlobalId":106386,"majorHabitat":{"id":3,"majorHabitatDescEn":"Terrestrial","majorHabitatDescEs":"Terrestre","majorHabitatDescFr":"Terrestre"},"nonMigrant":true,"localMigrant":false,"longDistanceMigrant":false,"mobilityMigrationComments":"Home ranges variously reported as 65 to 130 square kilometers (Riley and McBride 1975), 117 (males) and 78 square kilometers (females, Carley 1979); 100-200 sq km mentioned by Lowman 1975; varies with conditions. <br>","foodHabitsComments":"Opportunistic. Diet consists of a variety of invertebrates and vertebrates (rabbits, rodents, deer, birds, etc.). Particularly favors marsh rabbits (SYLVILAGUS AQUATICUS), nutria (MYOCASTOR COYPUS), and carrion. Not considered a threat to livestock (does not hunt in packs), but may prey on unattended young calves, pigs, and barnyard fowl (Matthews and Moseley 1990).","animalPhenologyComments":"Primarily nocturnal.","colonialBreeder":false,"length":165,"width":null,"weight":40900,"animalPhenologies":[{"animalCagPhenologyId":101275,"animalPhenology":{"id":4,"animalPhenologyDescEn":"Nocturnal","animalPhenologyDescEs":"Nocturno","animalPhenologyDescFr":"Nocturne","displayOrder":4},"adult":true,"immature":true}],"animalFoodHabits":[{"animalCagFoodHabitsId":102444,"foodHabits":{"id":1,"foodHabitsDescEn":"Carnivore","foodHabitsDescEs":"Carnívoro","foodHabitsDescFr":"Carnivore","displayOrder":1},"adult":true,"immature":true},{"animalCagFoodHabitsId":102446,"foodHabits":{"id":2,"foodHabitsDescEn":"Piscivore","foodHabitsDescEs":"Piscivore","foodHabitsDescFr":"Piscivore","displayOrder":2},"adult":true,"immature":true},{"animalCagFoodHabitsId":102445,"foodHabits":{"id":3,"foodHabitsDescEn":"Invertivore","foodHabitsDescEs":"Invertívoro","foodHabitsDescFr":"Invertivore","displayOrder":3},"adult":true,"immature":true}]},"occurrenceDelineations":[{"eoSpecsDetailId":1305,"locationUseClass":{"id":1,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Not applicable","locationUseClassDescEs":"No se aplica","locationUseClassDescFr":"Sans objet","displayOrder":1},"eoSpecGroupName":null,"subtypes":null,"inferredExtentDistance":11.0,"inferredExtentNotes":"Based on a home range of 100 square kilometers (see Separation Justification).","minimumEoCriteria":"Evidence of historical presence, or current and likely recurring presence, at a given location. Such evidence minimally includes collection or reliable observation and documentation of one or more individuals in appropriate habitat where the species is presumed to be established and breeding.","mappingGuidance":null,"separationBarriers":null,"separationDistanceUnsuitableHabitatat":null,"separationDistanceSuitableHabitatat":null,"altSeparationProcedure":"Occurrences generally should be based on major occupied physiographic or ecogeographic units that are separated along areas of relatively low wolf density or use (e.g., major urban areas, very wide bodies of water, very sparsely used habitats) These units may be based on available wolf sightings/records or on movements of radio-tagged individuals, or they may be based on the subjective determinations by biologists familiar with wolves and their habitats.","separationJustification":"Wolves are highly mobile and readily disperse hundreds of kilometers; populations and metapopulations tend to encompass very large areas (Craighead 1976, Pearson 1975). Hence, meaningful wolf occurrences should represent large occupied landscape units, but these often will not be demographically isolated from other occurrences. Occurrence separations often must be arbitrary.","versionDate":"2004-09-29","versionAuthor":"Hammerson, G., and S. Cannings","versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:27:11.895579Z"}],"plantCharacteristics":null,"elementManagement":{"elementGlobalId":106386,"eoManagementGroupName":null,"stewardshipOverview":"Details on current management efforts for this species, as well as future recovery planning, can be found in the 2018 Species Status Assessment (SSA) and the 2022 Draft Revised Recovery Plan (USFWS 2018, 2022). Overall, management strategies must focus on expanding distribution of the species in the wild, increasing population abundance, maintaining gene diversity long-term, and implementing collaborative conservation (e.g. acceptance, input, and cooperation from private landowners) (USFWS 2022). Goals should include avoiding red wolf hybridization with coyotes, increasing involvement of local landowners, increasing the captive population, and continuing captive red wolf releases, and monitoring inbreeding depression and interactions with humans. Future recovery potential for the species is reliant on the captive population. Within the Species Survival Program/Saving Animals from Extinction (SSP/SAFE) facilities, research is needed on how prevent the wolves from being habituated to human contact and how to teach them predator skills and behaviors needed to survive in the wild.<br/><br/>The actions being implemented by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) as of this assessment include adaptive management (e.g., coyote sterilization), translocation of red wolves from an island propagation site on St. Vincent NWR, release of red wolves from the captive population into the eastern North Carolina red wolf population to create new red wolf breeding pairs, increased tracking and monitoring, and expanded public education and outreach. Additionally, USFWS is pursuing pup fostering to increase the population in the wild. The species needs multiple viable populations across the historical range, genetic diversity, and adequate numbers and habitat. Any habitat in the southeastern United States of sufficient size, and which provides adequate food, water, and cover, could potentially be suitable for the red wolf (USFWS 2022). Although the objective of the species recovery is to have \"wild red wolf populations achieve abundance and genetic integrity to be viable and persist freely without extensive human assistance\", occasional interventions (releases or translocations) will likely be needed to maintain genetic diversity or demographic stability (USFWS 2022).<br/><br/>In 2021, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service assembled a new Red Wolf Recovery Team to update the current Red Wolf Recovery Plan, last revised in 1990. The final Recovery Plan will be completed by February 28, 2023 (USFWS 2022b).","impacts":null,"restorationPotential":null,"siteConservationPlansConsidered":null,"managementMethods":"Although captive red wolves are located throughout the country at different SSP/SAFE facilities, they are managed as a single population and are routinely transferred among the facilities to breed according to genetic management objectives to help maintain the health and diversity of an increasing population (USFWS 2022b).","monitoringMethods":null,"managementProgramContacts":"See Appendix A in the 2022 FWS draft recovery plan for the list of Red Wolf Recovery Team Members.","monitoringProgramContacts":null,"managementResearchPrograms":null,"managementResearchNeeds":null,"biologicalResearchNeeds":"Studies are underway to identify the possibility of Red Wolf ancestry still remaining in the wild in southwestern Louisiana and southeastern Texas (USFWS 2022b).","additionalTopics":null},"occurrenceViabilities":[{"eoRankSpecsDetailId":107784,"eoRankSpecsGroupName":null,"locationUseClass":{"id":1,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Not applicable","locationUseClassDescEs":"No se aplica","locationUseClassDescFr":"Sans objet","displayOrder":1},"excellentViability":null,"goodViability":null,"fairViability":null,"poorViability":null,"viabilityJustification":"Use the Generic Guidelines for the Application of Occurrence Ranks (2008).<br>The Key for Ranking Species Occurrences Using the Generic Approach provides a step-wise process for implementing this method.","versionDate":null,"versionAuthor":null,"versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2020-05-14T02:31:19.982969Z"}],"references":[{"id":1120918,"citation":"Agan, S. W., A. Treves, and L. L. Willey. 2021. Estimating poaching risk for the critically endangered wild red wolf (<i>Canis rufus</i>). PLoS One. 2021 May 5;16(5):e0244261. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0244261. PMID: 33951037; PMCID: PMC8099127.","shortCitationAuthor":"Agan et al.","shortCitationYear":2021,"referenceCode":"A21AGA01NAUS","lastModified":"2023-03-03T23:29:45.380898Z"},{"id":101228,"citation":"Allen, D. L. 1979. Wolves of Minong -- their vital role in a wild community. 385 pp.","shortCitationAuthor":"Allen","shortCitationYear":1979,"referenceCode":"B79ALL02NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:24:24.86184Z"},{"id":1151804,"citation":"American Society of Mammalogists (ASM). 2025. Mammal Diversity Database (Version 1.13) [Data set]. Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10595931. Online. 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Cook. R.C. Dowler, C. Jones, D.J. Schmidly, F.B. Stangl Jr., R.A. Van den Bussche and B. Würsig. 2014. Revised checklist of North American mammals north of Mexico, 2014. Museum of Texas Tech University Occasional Papers 327:1-28. Available at: http://www.nsrl.ttu.edu/publications/opapers/ops/OP327.pdf","shortCitationAuthor":"Bradley et al.","shortCitationYear":2014,"referenceCode":"A14BRA01NACA","lastModified":"2020-02-25T14:38:17.880059Z"},{"id":104252,"citation":"Brown, L. N. 1997. A guide to the mammals of the southeastern United States. University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville. xiv + 236 pp.","shortCitationAuthor":"Brown","shortCitationYear":1997,"referenceCode":"B97BRO01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:22:56.110502Z"},{"id":102597,"citation":"Caire, W., J. D. Tyler, B. P. Glass, and M. A. Mares. 1989. Mammals of Oklahoma. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman. 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