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During the nonbreeding season, the range in North America extends from the Aleutians south along the coast to northwestern Mexico; and from southern Newfoundland to northeastern Florida and the Gulf Coast; in Eurasia south to Mediterranean, Black, and Caspian seas, and along the western Pacific coast to China and Taiwan (AOU 1998).","areaOfOccupancy":{"id":100,"areaOfOccupancyType":{"id":4,"areaOfOccupancyTypeDescEn":"4-km2 grid cells","areaOfOccupancyTypeDescEs":"Células de la cuadrícula de 4 km2","areaOfOccupancyTypeDescFr":"Cellules de grille de 4 km2"},"areaOfOccupancyDescEn":"Unknown","areaOfOccupancyDescEs":"Desconocido","areaOfOccupancyDescFr":"Inconnu","bioticsKey":47},"areaOfOccupancyComments":"Undetermined.","numberEosComments":"This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations).","popSizeComments":"Alaska: statewide estimate 10,000 individuals; Canada: 12,000 individuals (surveyed areas only); Russian estimate: 71,000 individuals. (AK Loon and Grebe Working Group Meeting 2002). Estimates in West Palearctic: 2,000 pairs in Finland; circa 1,200-1,500 pairs in Scotland; 1,000 pairs in Iceland; 1,000 pairs in Norway; 10,000 in British waters (Hoyo et al. 1992). <br/><br/>Based on Christmas Bird Counts in North America, areas of highest winter density are eastern North Carolina, the Delaware Bay area, and between Point Arena and Point Reyes on the west coast (Root 1988). Relative abundance highest in North Carolina (246.38 birds per 100 survey hours; Sauer et al. 1996). Global population estimate of 200,000 - 590,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006).","viabilityComments":"There are 51 Important Bird Areas (IBA) in 15 countries where this species has triggered IBA criteria (Birdlife International 2013).","threatImpactComments":"PREDATION: Predation is major cause of nesting failure (Eberl and Picman 1993). Predators include arctic fox, wolf, glaucous gull, jaegers, snowy owl, and probably other carnivores and raptors. <br/><br/>FLOODING: Flooding of nests and desiccation of ponds leading to stranding, abandonment, or predation may be minor factors of nesting failure (Eberl and Picman 1993). <br/><br/>CONTAMINATION: Given the fish diet, this species may be susceptible to mercury contamination in areas with acidified lakes. Eggs in Sweden, for example, revealed extremely high mercury levels (6.2-14.2 parts per million, dry weight). Residues of chlorinated hydrocarbons and heavy metals also found in tissue samples of birds found dead in Germany, 1980 to 1984 (Heidmann et al. 1988). Red-throated loon also may suffer from decline in food (fish) abundance due to lake acidification in some areas (Eriksson 1994).<br/><br/>HUMAN DISTURBANCE: Substantial numbers may drown as a result of entanglement in fishing nets in winter range (see Johnsgard 1987). As many as 73 percent of nests suffered from human-related disturbance on Igloolik Island, Northwest Territories (Forbes et al. 1992). Red-throated loons are sensitive to human intrusion and may abandon disturbed breeding lakes (Forbes et al. 1992, Hoyo et al. 1992).<br/><br/>Additional hazards include lake eutrophication, water level fluctuations (McIntyre 1994), and oil spills, especially near foraging areas. At least 201 birds found oiled in coastal Britain in 1970s (Hoyo et al. 1992).","shortTermTrendComments":"Limited trend data are available; however, at least local declines are evident. Surveys during the Alaska-Yukon Waterfowl Breeding Population Survey, 1971-1993, showed a 53 percent decline (Groves et al. 1996). Christmas Bird Count data indicate a non-significant survey-wide decline (-1.4 percent annual change; n = 376), 1959-1988 (Sauer et al. 1996). Survey methods may not be adequate, however, to monitor birds such as this species. Data from Europe suggest a large local decline in southwest Sweden; number of breeding sites has been reduced by 50 percent during the last 40-50 years (Eriksson 1994). In the Shetland Islands, abundance declined by one-third since 1983. In the Orkneys, populations are apparently stable (Gibbons et al. 1997).","longTermTrendComments":"Overall population appears to be decreasing (Birdlife International 2013). Populations in areas where there were considerable declines (ca. 50%) attributed to lake acidifcation (Sweden) showed stabilizing following lake stabilization; populations in Finland showed similar declines until legal protection was inacted in the 1980s. See Barr et al. (2000). Breeding Bird Survey and/or Christmas Bird Count data show stable population trends in the last 40 years in North America (Birdlife International 2013; Butcher and Niven 2007).","inventoryNeeds":"Data on population trends in Canada are needed. This would serve to help interpret Alaskan data in a range-wide context (McCaffery 1998).","numberProtEosComments":"Many occurrences are in protected areas or in areas that provide effective protection because of their remoteness.","protectionNeeds":null,"otherConsiderations":null,"intrinsicVulnerabilityComments":"Despite large circumpolar distribution and large population, the population trend overall seems to be decreasing (Birdlife International 2013).","enviromentalSpecificityComments":null},"animalCharacteristics":{"elementGlobalId":106180,"majorHabitat":{"id":3,"majorHabitatDescEn":"Terrestrial","majorHabitatDescEs":"Terrestre","majorHabitatDescFr":"Terrestre"},"nonMigrant":false,"localMigrant":false,"longDistanceMigrant":true,"mobilityMigrationComments":"Arrives in nesting areas around Beaufort Sea usually in early June (Johnson and Herter 1989). Common migrant off U.S. west coast April-June. Returns to U.S. Atlantic coast mainly in October, off California shores by September-October (Terres 1980). Large numbers may pass through the Great Lakes region in October.","foodHabitsComments":"Diet mainly fishes; also eats shrimps, snails, aquatic insects and some aquatic plants. When feeding young, often leaves nesting area to obtain fishes from larger lake or marine waters (Reimchen and Douglas 1984). Forages in shallow water.","animalPhenologyComments":"Activity may extend into twilight when adults feeding young (Reimchen and Douglas 1984).","colonialBreeder":false,"length":64,"width":null,"weight":1551,"animalPhenologies":[{"animalCagPhenologyId":102528,"animalPhenology":{"id":3,"animalPhenologyDescEn":"Diurnal","animalPhenologyDescEs":"Diurno","animalPhenologyDescFr":"Diurne","displayOrder":3},"adult":true,"immature":true},{"animalCagPhenologyId":102529,"animalPhenology":{"id":5,"animalPhenologyDescEn":"Crepuscular","animalPhenologyDescEs":"Crepuscular","animalPhenologyDescFr":"Crépusculaire","displayOrder":5},"adult":true,"immature":true}],"animalFoodHabits":[{"animalCagFoodHabitsId":104688,"foodHabits":{"id":2,"foodHabitsDescEn":"Piscivore","foodHabitsDescEs":"Piscivore","foodHabitsDescFr":"Piscivore","displayOrder":2},"adult":true,"immature":true}]},"occurrenceDelineations":[{"eoSpecsDetailId":1134,"locationUseClass":{"id":2,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Breeding","locationUseClassDescEs":"En reproducción","locationUseClassDescFr":"Reproduction","displayOrder":2},"eoSpecGroupName":"Loons","subtypes":"Foraging Area, Nest Site","inferredExtentDistance":1.0,"inferredExtentNotes":"Home range sizes generally not available. This distance based conservatively on a breeding territory size of 80 hectares; i.e. does not include foraging lakes or salt water separate from nesting lake.","minimumEoCriteria":"Evidence of historical breeding , or current and likely recurring breeding, at a given location, minimally a reliable observation of one or more breeding pairs in appropriate habitat. Be cautious about creating EOs for observations that may represent single breeding events outside the normal breeding distribution.","mappingGuidance":"Map multiple nesting territories on the same lake by enclosing them in a single polygon, using the shoreline of the lake as the boundary. The occurrence should include the parts of the lake used for courtship, nesting, brood rearing and feeding.  Map nesting territories or foraging areas on multiple lakes or other water bodies with multiple polygons using the shorelines as the polygon boundaries. For one pair on a lake of less than 80 hectares, the boundary will usually be the entire lake shore.","separationBarriers":"None.","separationDistanceUnsuitableHabitatat":10.0,"separationDistanceSuitableHabitatat":10.0,"altSeparationProcedure":null,"separationJustification":"Loons are large birds that often fly between lakes or, in many cases, to marine environments to feed. Red-throated Loons fly up to 14-20 kilometers from the nest to feed (summarized by Barr et al. 2000). Thus a large separation distance is appropriate; the distance is a compromise between the high mobility of loons and the need for occurrences of practical size for conservation purposes. Occurrences do not necessarily reflect discrete populations or metapopulations. <br>","versionDate":"2004-10-28","versionAuthor":"Cannings, S., and G. Hammerson","versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2020-04-30T02:04:18.628639Z"},{"eoSpecsDetailId":1135,"locationUseClass":{"id":3,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Nonbreeding","locationUseClassDescEs":"No reproducción","locationUseClassDescFr":"Non-reproduction","displayOrder":3},"eoSpecGroupName":"Loons","subtypes":null,"inferredExtentDistance":null,"inferredExtentNotes":null,"minimumEoCriteria":"Evidence of recurring presence of wintering flocks (including historical); and potential recurring presence at a given location, minimally reliable observations of 25 birds in appropriate habitat for at least 20 days annually. Be cautious about creating EOs for observations that may represent single events.","mappingGuidance":null,"separationBarriers":"None.","separationDistanceUnsuitableHabitatat":10.0,"separationDistanceSuitableHabitatat":10.0,"altSeparationProcedure":null,"separationJustification":"Separation distance somewhat arbitrary. Ecology of wintering loons not well known. Apparently have territories of 4-8 hectares under some circumstances, but raft together at night (McIntyre 1978); in other studies gathered in feeding assemblages (Daub 1989).","versionDate":"2001-04-11","versionAuthor":"Cannings, S.","versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2020-04-30T02:04:18.628639Z"}],"plantCharacteristics":null,"elementManagement":{"elementGlobalId":106180,"eoManagementGroupName":null,"stewardshipOverview":null,"impacts":null,"restorationPotential":null,"siteConservationPlansConsidered":null,"managementMethods":null,"monitoringMethods":null,"managementProgramContacts":null,"monitoringProgramContacts":null,"managementResearchPrograms":null,"managementResearchNeeds":null,"biologicalResearchNeeds":"A world wide conservation effort and coordinated research is needed to find the causes of and remedies for the declining populations of red-throated loons (Barr, Eberl, and McIntyre 2000).","additionalTopics":null},"occurrenceViabilities":[{"eoRankSpecsDetailId":107585,"eoRankSpecsGroupName":null,"locationUseClass":{"id":1,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Not applicable","locationUseClassDescEs":"No se aplica","locationUseClassDescFr":"Sans objet","displayOrder":1},"excellentViability":null,"goodViability":null,"fairViability":null,"poorViability":null,"viabilityJustification":"Use the Generic Guidelines for the Application of Occurrence Ranks (2008).<br>The Key for Ranking Species Occurrences Using the Generic Approach provides a step-wise process for implementing this method.","versionDate":null,"versionAuthor":null,"versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2020-05-14T02:30:50.560674Z"}],"references":[{"id":153779,"citation":"American Ornithologists' Union (AOU). 1983. Check-list of North American Birds, 6th edition. Allen Press, Inc., Lawrence, Kansas. 877 pp.","shortCitationAuthor":"American Ornithologists' Union (AOU)","shortCitationYear":1983,"referenceCode":"B83AOU01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T14:38:12.689104Z"},{"id":134424,"citation":"American Ornithologists' Union (AOU). 1998. Check-list of North American birds. Seventh edition. American Ornithologists' Union, Washington, D.C. [as modified by subsequent supplements and corrections published in <i>The Auk</i>]. Also available online: http://www.aou.org/.","shortCitationAuthor":"American Ornithologists' Union (AOU)","shortCitationYear":1998,"referenceCode":"B98AOU01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T14:38:12.673494Z"},{"id":103907,"citation":"Andres, B. A. 1993. Foraging flights of Pacific, <i>Gavia pacifica</i>, and Red-throated, <i>G. stellata</i>, Loons on Alaska's Coastal Plain. 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Field-Nat. 108:10-16.","shortCitationAuthor":"Dickson","shortCitationYear":1994,"referenceCode":"A94DIC01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:26:44.535808Z"},{"id":132241,"citation":"Douglas, S. D., and T. E. Reimchen. 1988. Reproductive phenology and early survivorship in red-throated loons, <i>Gavia stellata</i>. Canadian Field-Nat. 102:701-704.","shortCitationAuthor":"Douglas and Reimchen","shortCitationYear":1988,"referenceCode":"A88DOU01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:26:44.535808Z"},{"id":101558,"citation":"Eberl, C. and J. Picman. 1993. Effect of nest-site location on reproductive success of red-throated loons (<i>Gavia stellata</i>). Auk 110: 436-444.","shortCitationAuthor":"Eberl and Picman","shortCitationYear":1993,"referenceCode":"A93EBE01EHUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:26:44.535808Z"},{"id":154389,"citation":"Eriksson, M. O. G. 1994. Susceptibility to freshwater acidification by two species of loon: red-throated loon (<i>Gavia stellata</i>) and arctic loon (<i>Gavia arctica</i>) in southwest Sweden. Hydrobiologia 279/280: 439-444.","shortCitationAuthor":"Eriksson","shortCitationYear":1994,"referenceCode":"A94ERI02EHUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:18:26.372056Z"},{"id":120128,"citation":"Forbes, G., K. Robertson, C. Ogilvie, and L. Seddon. 1992. Breeding densities, biogeography, and nest depredation of birds on Igloolik Island, Northwest Territories. Arctic 45: 295-303.","shortCitationAuthor":"Forbes et al.","shortCitationYear":1992,"referenceCode":"A92FOR01EHUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:26:44.535808Z"},{"id":105821,"citation":"Furness, R. W. 1983. The birds of Foula. Vol. 1. The Brathay Hall Trust, Foula, Shetland.","shortCitationAuthor":"Furness","shortCitationYear":1983,"referenceCode":"B83FUR01NACA","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:26:44.52019Z"},{"id":114268,"citation":"Gibbons, D. W., I. P Bainbridge, G. 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Both sexes (mainly female) incubate 1-2 (usually 2) eggs 24-31 days. Young are tended by both parents, fly at about 8 weeks. First breeds probably at 2-3 years (Johnsgard 1987). Nest density in Alaska and Canada ranges up to 1.65 per sq km (Johnson and Herter 1989).","ecologyComments":"Somewhat gregarious when not breeding (Oberholser 1974). Gulls, jaegers, and/or arctic fox may cause significant loss of eggs and young in some areas (Johnsgard 1987). <br><br>Defends nesting territories of variable size. Sometimes an single pond is defended (e.g. 1.1 ha in Shetland Islands, Furness 1983), sometimes multiple ponds (Tuktoyaktuk Peninsula, NWT, Dickson 1993), sometimes several pairs share a larger lake (e.g. 5 pairs on a 76-hectare lake on Bathurst Island, Barr et al. 2000). Home range larger than breeding territory; individuals fly up to 14-20 kilometers away from nest site to forage (summarized by Barr et al. 2000). Merrie (1978) suggested that each breeding pair requires 2.5 square kilometers of foraging waters.","habitatComments":"Ponds and lakes in coastal and alpine tundra, and coastal flats south of tundra (breeding); primarily bays, seacoasts and estuaries, less frequently on lakes and rivers (nonbreeding) (AOU 1983). <br><br>Nests on edges of lakes and ponds (typically small and shallow), usually on ground in shallow scrape or on mound of mud/plant material; or on hummock in shallow water. Nesting ponds average about 0.3-0.4 ha, may lack food source; 1-4 ponds/territory. In the Northwest Territories, most ponds used for nesting were 0.1-1.0 ha in surface area and 0.3-1.0 m deep; emergent vegetation covered an average of 17% of the pond surface area; over half of the ponds had >80% marshy shoreline; 68% of nests were along wet shorelines, 18% were on islands, and 10% were in shallow water offshore; nests tended to be in sites not exposed to wind-driven waves and were an average of 2 m from open water; most nests were platforms built with aquatic vegetative growth from the previous year (Dickson 1994). In the Northwest Territories, nests within 9 km of marine foraging areas had higher reproductive success than did nests farther away (Eberl and Picman 1993).","generalDescription":null,"diagnosticCharacteristics":"See Stallcup (1994) for information on identification of North American loons.","speciesMarineHabitats":[{"cagMarineHabId":-100612,"marineHabitat":{"id":3,"marineHabitatDescEn":"Near shore","marineHabitatDescEs":"Cercano a la costa","marineHabitatDescFr":"Côtier","displayOrder":3}}],"speciesTerrestrialHabitats":[],"speciesRiverineHabitats":[{"cagRiverineHabId":-105271,"riverineHabitat":{"id":1,"riverineHabitatDescEn":"BIG RIVER","riverineHabitatDescEs":"RÍO GRANDE","riverineHabitatDescFr":"GRANDE RIVIÈRE","displayOrder":1}}],"speciesPalustrineHabitats":[{"cagPalusHabId":-102760,"palustrineHabitat":{"id":2,"palustrineHabitatDescEn":"HERBACEOUS WETLAND","palustrineHabitatDescEs":"HUMEDAL HERBÁCEO","palustrineHabitatDescFr":"TERRE HUMIDE HERBACÉE","displayOrder":2}},{"cagPalusHabId":-102759,"palustrineHabitat":{"id":6,"palustrineHabitatDescEn":"Riparian","palustrineHabitatDescEs":"Ribereño","palustrineHabitatDescFr":"Riverain","displayOrder":6}}],"speciesLacustrineHabitats":[{"cagLacusHabId":-100812,"lacustrineHabitat":{"id":1,"lacustrineHabitatDescEn":"Deep water","lacustrineHabitatDescEs":"Aguas profundas","lacustrineHabitatDescFr":"Eau profonde","displayOrder":1}},{"cagLacusHabId":-100813,"lacustrineHabitat":{"id":2,"lacustrineHabitatDescEn":"Shallow water","lacustrineHabitatDescEs":"Aguas poco profundas","lacustrineHabitatDescFr":"Eau peu profonde","displayOrder":2}}],"speciesSubterraneanHabitats":[],"speciesEstuarineHabitats":[{"cagEstuarineHabId":-101143,"estuarineHabitat":{"id":1,"estuarineHabitatDescEn":"Bay/sound","estuarineHabitatDescEs":"Bahía/Estrecho","estuarineHabitatDescFr":"Baie/détroit","displayOrder":1}},{"cagEstuarineHabId":-101144,"estuarineHabitat":{"id":2,"estuarineHabitatDescEn":"River mouth/tidal river","estuarineHabitatDescEs":"Desembocadura del río/río de marea","estuarineHabitatDescFr":"Embouchure/rivière à marées","displayOrder":2}},{"cagEstuarineHabId":-101145,"estuarineHabitat":{"id":3,"estuarineHabitatDescEn":"Lagoon","estuarineHabitatDescEs":"Laguna","estuarineHabitatDescFr":"Lagune","displayOrder":3}}]},"primaryReference":{"id":134424,"citation":"American Ornithologists' Union (AOU). 1998. Check-list of North American birds. Seventh edition. American Ornithologists' Union, Washington, D.C. [as modified by subsequent supplements and corrections published in <i>The Auk</i>]. Also available online: http://www.aou.org/.","shortCitationAuthor":"American Ornithologists' Union (AOU)","shortCitationYear":1998,"referenceCode":"B98AOU01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T14:38:12.673494Z"},"predecessors":[],"elementGlobalThreatAssessments":[{"elementGlobalThreatAssessId":12847,"iucnThreatCategory":{"id":47,"iucnThreatCategoryCd":"11","iucnThreatCategoryDescEn":"Climate change & severe weather","iucnThreatCategoryDescEs":null,"iucnThreatCategoryDescFr":null,"displayValueEn":"11 - Climate change & severe weather","displayValueEs":null,"displayValueFr":null,"displayOrder":840,"iucnThreat":"Y","parentThreatId":null,"iucnThreatLevel":1},"iucnThreatScope":{"id":1,"iucnThreatScopeDescEn":"Pervasive: Affects all or most (71-100%) of the total population or occurrences or extent","iucnThreatScopeDescEs":null,"iucnThreatScopeDescFr":null,"displayValueEn":"Pervasive (71-100%)","displayValueEs":null,"displayValueFr":null,"displayOrder":1},"iucnThreatSeverity":{"id":10,"iucnThreatSeverityDescEn":"Unknown","iucnThreatSeverityDescEs":null,"iucnThreatSeverityDescFr":null,"displayValueEn":"Unknown","displayValueEs":null,"displayValueFr":null,"displayOrder":12},"iucnThreatTiming":{"id":3,"iucnThreatTimingDescEn":"Low: In the long-term future, or now suspended but could return in long term","iucnThreatTimingDescEs":null,"iucnThreatTimingDescFr":null,"displayValueEn":"Low (long-term)","displayValueEs":null,"displayValueFr":null,"displayOrder":3},"threatImpactCalc":null},{"elementGlobalThreatAssessId":12848,"iucnThreatCategory":{"id":48,"iucnThreatCategoryCd":"11.1","iucnThreatCategoryDescEn":"Habitat shifting & alteration","iucnThreatCategoryDescEs":null,"iucnThreatCategoryDescFr":null,"displayValueEn":"11.1 - Habitat shifting & alteration","displayValueEs":null,"displayValueFr":null,"displayOrder":850,"iucnThreat":"Y","parentThreatId":47,"iucnThreatLevel":2},"iucnThreatScope":{"id":1,"iucnThreatScopeDescEn":"Pervasive: Affects all or most (71-100%) of the total population or occurrences or extent","iucnThreatScopeDescEs":null,"iucnThreatScopeDescFr":null,"displayValueEn":"Pervasive (71-100%)","displayValueEs":null,"displayValueFr":null,"displayOrder":1},"iucnThreatSeverity":{"id":10,"iucnThreatSeverityDescEn":"Unknown","iucnThreatSeverityDescEs":null,"iucnThreatSeverityDescFr":null,"displayValueEn":"Unknown","displayValueEs":null,"displayValueFr":null,"displayOrder":12},"iucnThreatTiming":{"id":3,"iucnThreatTimingDescEn":"Low: In the long-term future, or now suspended but could return in long term","iucnThreatTimingDescEs":null,"iucnThreatTimingDescFr":null,"displayValueEn":"Low (long-term)","displayValueEs":null,"displayValueFr":null,"displayOrder":3},"threatImpactCalc":null}]}