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Clutch size 5-8 (usually 6-7). Incubation 23-24 days, by both sexes. Broods average 4. Young leave nest at 30-35 days. One brood/year, though replacement clutches may be laid. Pairs nest solitarily. On Lake Hasca, Minnesota, 14 nesting pairs occupied an area of 65 sq km (see Fry and Fry 1992).","ecologyComments":"Generally occurs singly or in pairs. In New Brunswick, densities reach 10 individuals per 1600 m of farmland stream (see Fry and Fry 1992). Foraging is usually within 1.6 km of nest, up to 8 km (Cornwell 1963). Lakeside territories average 0.8 km of shoreline, up to 2.4 km; river territories average 2.4 to 4.8 km of river length (Salyer and Lagler 1946).","habitatComments":"Primarily along water, both freshwater and marine, including lakes, streams, wooded creeks and rivers, seacoasts, bays, estuaries, and mangroves. Perches in trees, on over hanging branches, posts and utility wires. At night, roosts high in a leafy tree near water (Fry and Fry 1992). In some areas availability of foraging sites may be more limiting than the availability of nest sites. BREEDING: Typically nests in a burrow dug by both sexes in the bank of a creek, river, lake, pond, gravel or sand pit, or embankment of a road or railroad; usually but not always near water. Rarely may nest in sawdust heap or tree hole.","generalDescription":null,"diagnosticCharacteristics":null,"speciesMarineHabitats":[{"cagMarineHabId":-100509,"marineHabitat":{"id":3,"marineHabitatDescEn":"Near shore","marineHabitatDescEs":"Cercano a la costa","marineHabitatDescFr":"Côtier","displayOrder":3}}],"speciesTerrestrialHabitats":[],"speciesRiverineHabitats":[{"cagRiverineHabId":-104437,"riverineHabitat":{"id":1,"riverineHabitatDescEn":"BIG RIVER","riverineHabitatDescEs":"RÍO GRANDE","riverineHabitatDescFr":"GRANDE RIVIÈRE","displayOrder":1}},{"cagRiverineHabId":-104438,"riverineHabitat":{"id":2,"riverineHabitatDescEn":"MEDIUM RIVER","riverineHabitatDescEs":"RÍO MEDIANO","riverineHabitatDescFr":"MOYENNE RIVIÈRE","displayOrder":2}},{"cagRiverineHabId":-104439,"riverineHabitat":{"id":3,"riverineHabitatDescEn":"CREEK","riverineHabitatDescEs":"ARROYO","riverineHabitatDescFr":"RUISSEAU","displayOrder":3}},{"cagRiverineHabId":-104440,"riverineHabitat":{"id":6,"riverineHabitatDescEn":"Moderate gradient","riverineHabitatDescEs":"Pendiente de flujo medio","riverineHabitatDescFr":"Pente d’écoulement moyenne","displayOrder":6}},{"cagRiverineHabId":-104441,"riverineHabitat":{"id":7,"riverineHabitatDescEn":"Low gradient","riverineHabitatDescEs":"Pendiente de bajo flujo","riverineHabitatDescFr":"Pente d’écoulement faible","displayOrder":7}}],"speciesPalustrineHabitats":[{"cagPalusHabId":-102323,"palustrineHabitat":{"id":2,"palustrineHabitatDescEn":"HERBACEOUS WETLAND","palustrineHabitatDescEs":"HUMEDAL HERBÁCEO","palustrineHabitatDescFr":"TERRE HUMIDE HERBACÉE","displayOrder":2}},{"cagPalusHabId":-102321,"palustrineHabitat":{"id":4,"palustrineHabitatDescEn":"FORESTED WETLAND","palustrineHabitatDescEs":"HUMEDAL BOSCOSO","palustrineHabitatDescFr":"TERRE HUMIDE FORESTIÈRE","displayOrder":4}},{"cagPalusHabId":-102322,"palustrineHabitat":{"id":6,"palustrineHabitatDescEn":"Riparian","palustrineHabitatDescEs":"Ribereño","palustrineHabitatDescFr":"Riverain","displayOrder":6}}],"speciesLacustrineHabitats":[{"cagLacusHabId":-100678,"lacustrineHabitat":{"id":2,"lacustrineHabitatDescEn":"Shallow water","lacustrineHabitatDescEs":"Aguas poco profundas","lacustrineHabitatDescFr":"Eau peu profonde","displayOrder":2}}],"speciesSubterraneanHabitats":[],"speciesEstuarineHabitats":[{"cagEstuarineHabId":-100893,"estuarineHabitat":{"id":1,"estuarineHabitatDescEn":"Bay/sound","estuarineHabitatDescEs":"Bahía/Estrecho","estuarineHabitatDescFr":"Baie/détroit","displayOrder":1}},{"cagEstuarineHabId":-100894,"estuarineHabitat":{"id":2,"estuarineHabitatDescEn":"River mouth/tidal river","estuarineHabitatDescEs":"Desembocadura del río/río de marea","estuarineHabitatDescFr":"Embouchure/rivière à marées","displayOrder":2}},{"cagEstuarineHabId":-100898,"estuarineHabitat":{"id":3,"estuarineHabitatDescEn":"Lagoon","estuarineHabitatDescEs":"Laguna","estuarineHabitatDescFr":"Lagune","displayOrder":3}},{"cagEstuarineHabId":-100895,"estuarineHabitat":{"id":4,"estuarineHabitatDescEn":"Tidal flat/shore","estuarineHabitatDescEs":"Marea plana/orilla","estuarineHabitatDescFr":"Replat de marée/rivage","displayOrder":4}},{"cagEstuarineHabId":-100896,"estuarineHabitat":{"id":5,"estuarineHabitatDescEn":"Herbaceous wetland","estuarineHabitatDescEs":"Humedal herbáceo","estuarineHabitatDescFr":"Terre humide herbacée","displayOrder":5}},{"cagEstuarineHabId":-100897,"estuarineHabitat":{"id":6,"estuarineHabitatDescEn":"Scrub-shrub wetland","estuarineHabitatDescEs":"Humedal de matorrales","estuarineHabitatDescFr":"Fruticées humides","displayOrder":6}}]},"primaryReference":{"id":619345,"citation":"American Ornithologists' Union (AOU). 2007. Forty-eighth supplement to the American Ornithologists' Union Check-list of North American Birds. The Auk 124(3):1109-1115.","shortCitationAuthor":"American Ornithologists' Union (AOU)","shortCitationYear":2007,"referenceCode":"A07AOU01EHUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:19:42.63881Z"},"predecessors":[],"elementGlobalThreatAssessments":[]}