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Bailey, C.E. Bond, J.R. Brooker, E.A. Lachner, R.N. Lea, and W.B. Scott. 1991. Common and scientific names of fishes from the United States and Canada. American Fisheries Society, Special Publication 20. 183 pp.","conceptName":"<i>Polyodon spathula</i>","taxonomicComments":"Low level of genetic variability among populations; potential for polytypy may be slight because of relatively recent isolation of populations in different river systems (Carlson et al. 1982, Starnes 1995). Family includes only two living species; the other species occurs in the Yangtze River, China.","roundedGRank":"G3","conservationStatusFactorsEditionDate":"2025-12-08","conservationStatusFactorsEditionAuthors":"Hammerson, G., M. K. Clausen, and R. Jennings (2012); rev. R. L. 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species is widespread in rivers in the eastern and central U.S. The population has suffered historical declines due to overfishing and habitat alteration. It is threatened by the continued impacts of dam and reservoir creation, pollution, and harvesting by fisherman.","grank":"G3G4","rankInfo":{"elementGlobalId":105060,"aooPercentGood":null,"enviromentalSpecificity":null,"intrinsicVulnerability":{"id":4,"intrinsicVulnerabilityDescEn":"Moderately vulnerable","intrinsicVulnerabilityDescEs":"Moderadamente vulnerable","intrinsicVulnerabilityDescFr":"Moyennement vulnérable"},"longTermTrend":{"id":25,"longTermTrendDescEn":"Decline of 50-70%","longTermTrendDescEs":"Disminución del 50 al 70%.","longTermTrendDescFr":"Diminution de 50 à 70 %"},"numberEos":{"id":10,"numberEosDescEn":"21 - 80","numberEosDescEs":"De 21 a 80","numberEosDescFr":"De 21 à 80"},"numberGoodEos":{"id":17,"numberGoodEosDescEn":"Some to many (13-125)","numberGoodEosDescEs":"Algunos a muchos (13-125)","numberGoodEosDescFr":"De quelques-uns à plusieurs (de 13 à 125)"},"numberProtEos":{"id":16,"numberProtEosDescEn":"Unknown whether any occurrences are appropriately protected and managed","numberProtEosDescEs":"Se desconoce si se protege y controla adecuadamente algúna ocurrencia","numberProtEosDescFr":"Nombre inconnu d’occurrences protégées et contrôlées convenablement"},"popSize":{"id":32,"popSizeDescEn":"10,000 - 1,000,000 individuals","popSizeDescEs":"De 10.000 a 1.000.000 de individuos","popSizeDescFr":"De 10 000 à 1 000 000 individus"},"rangeExtent":{"id":35,"rangeExtentDescEn":">2,500,000 square km (greater than 1,000,000 square miles)","rangeExtentDescEs":">2.500.000 kilómetros cuadrados (más ","rangeExtentDescFr":">2 500 000 km carrés (plus de 1 000 000 miles carrés)"},"shortTermTrend":{"id":37,"shortTermTrendDescEn":"Decline of <30% to relatively stable","shortTermTrendDescEs":"Disminución de <30% a relativamente estable","shortTermTrendDescFr":"Diminution de <30 % à relativement stable"},"threatImpactAssigned":{"id":6,"threatImpactAssignedDescEn":"High - medium","threatImpactAssignedDescEs":"Alto - medio","threatImpactAssignedDescFr":"Élevé — Moyen"},"rangeExtentComments":"This species occurs throughout much of the eastern United States. It is found in Gulf Slope drainages from Montana (Missouri River) east to western Pennsylvania (Allegheny River) and south to the Gulf Coast in Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas (Parker 1988, Jennings and Wilson 1993, Mettee et al. 1996, Graham 1997, Page and Burr 2011). Using Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) (2025) records from 1995-2025, range extent is estimated to be 2.75 million km² (RARECAT 2025).<br/><br/>The historical range included southern Canada in the Great Lakes region (Lake Erie) (Parker 1988), Maryland, Michigan, New York (known from only a single, old, apparently flood-related record; Smith 1985), North Carolina (known from an 1800s report for the French Broad River), and Pennsylvania (Cooper 1983, Graham 1997). Paddlefish also are extirpated from Galveston Bay and the Sabine River drainages, Texas; Calcasieu drainage, Louisiana; Okoboji and Spirit Lakes and the upper Des Moines River, Iowa; Reelfoot, Dale Hollow, and J.P. Priest Lakes, Tennessee; above Prairie du Sac Dam on the Wisconsin River, Wisconsin; and above Thurlow Dam on the Tallapoosa River and above the Jordan Dam on the Coosa River, Alabama (Gengerke 1986).","areaOfOccupancy":null,"areaOfOccupancyComments":null,"numberEosComments":"This species makes long-distance travels up and down river corridors, at times over 1,000 km (Stell et al. 2018, Devine et al. 2020). This would indicate each major river drainage represents a single, large occurrence. Numerous impoundments occur throughout the range and divide the distribution into dozens of fragmented occurrences.<br/><br/>Based on ten-year-old data, the Mississippi Interstate Cooperative Resource Association (MICRA) recognized three primary genetic strains: the upper Missouri River Basin in Montana and North Dakota; Missouri and Mississippi River basins in the central and south-central United States; and the Alabama River System (Kim Graham, pers. comm., 1998).","popSizeComments":"Total adult population size is unknown but exceeds 10,000. One study tagged 2,224 individuals in Missouri over 5 years (Devine et al. 2020).<br/><br/>Harvest statistics indicate that the species is locally numerous. Page and Burr (2011) regarded this species as fairly common.","viabilityComments":"Many occurrences likely have good viability.","threatImpactComments":"Threatened by siltation of spawning habitat, pollution, back-to-back impoundments, and, in some areas, exploitation by the caviar industry (see Burkhead and Jenkins 1991, Wilkinson 1997, Ross et al. 2023).<br/><br/>Habitat destruction and river modification are the most obvious changes affecting abundance and distribution. Construction and operation of dams on mainstem streams has had severe impacts. Dams eliminated traditional spawning sites (paddlefish can live in reservoirs but need streams for spawning), interrupted natural spawning migrations, altered water flow regimes, dewatered streams, and eliminated backwater areas that were important as nursery and feeding areas (see Graham 1997, Pflieger 1997). Dams have curtailed the long-range movements that may be required to maintain populations (Dillard et al. 1986). It is likely that structural changes in big river systems have adversely affected most of the original habitat (Sparrowe 1986).<br/><br/>High water turbidity and low abundance of zooplankton are primary factors limiting successful restoration of historical populations (Gary et al. 2023). Along much of the Missouri, Ohio, and Mississippi rivers and their tributaries, agricultural development has resulted in soil erosion, and fertilizer and pesticide runoff. Industrial pollution is severe along the Ohio River and tributaries to the Mississippi River, and problems with municipal wastes occur at many sites (Sparrowe 1986, Ross et al. 2023).<br/><br/>Overharvest is a conservation issue (Mettee et al. 1996). Paddlefish are protected under CITES Appendix II placing strict controls on international trade. However, as paddlefish eggs are often mixed with the more popular European and Asian caviars the listing of all sturgeon species by CITES Appendix II in April of 1998 is expected to increase the pressure for legal and illegal harvest of paddlefish (Graham and Rasmussen 1998). To a lesser degree overfishing by commercial and sport fishermen has adversely affected populations (see Graham 1997). The sport fishery catch by snagging in many rivers and reservoirs is substantial (Jenkins and Burkhead 1994). Sport harvest is regulated in some states through quotas, length limits, creel limits, or protected zones (Graham 1997, Graham and Rasmussen 1998).","shortTermTrendComments":"Trend over the past 10 years or three generations is uncertain but distribution and abundance probably have been relatively stable or slowly declining.","longTermTrendComments":"This species has been extirpated from much of the northern and eastern periphery of the range (see Range Extent comments). Severe declines have occurred in the Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio, and Red rivers since the turn of the century (Smith 1979, Trautman 1981, Cooper 1983, Burr and Warren 1986, Pflieger 1997), while notable increases have been documented in the Tennessee, Cumberland, and Arkansas rivers (Gengerke 1986, Wallus 1986, Etnier and Starnes 1993). However, paddlefish have all but disappeared from the Tennessee River in Alabama (Hoxmeier and DeVries 1996, Mettee et al. 1996), and Robison and Buchanan (1988) reported a decrease in abundance and distribution in Arkansas. Many states have implemented stocking programs to supplement existing stocks or recover historical populations (e.g., see Pflieger 1997). From 1975-1985 an annual average of 138,000 kg of paddlefish were harvested commercially in Arkansas (Robison and Buchanan 1988). \"About 100 tons\" were harvested annually during the two-month snagging season in the Osage River in Missouri before closure of Truman Dam (Pflieger 1997).","inventoryNeeds":"Determine the current number of populations and abundance. Monitor populations to determine long-term trends and effect of stocking programs.","numberProtEosComments":"No known protected sites. This species was listed in Appendix II of CITES in 1997 (the listing took effect in 1998). Several states have established regulations to limit the harvest of paddlefish.","protectionNeeds":"Prevent spawning habitat destruction, and limit the number of dams that prevent migratory movements. Prevent overharvest. Fishing regulations should be managed based on populations within a waterway rather than by state boundaries (Kramer et al. 2018).","otherConsiderations":null,"intrinsicVulnerabilityComments":"Males mature at around 8 years while females mature at around 12 years, and individuals generally do not reproduce every year (Scarnecchia et al. 2007).","enviromentalSpecificityComments":null},"animalCharacteristics":{"elementGlobalId":105060,"majorHabitat":{"id":2,"majorHabitatDescEn":"Freshwater","majorHabitatDescEs":"Agua dulce","majorHabitatDescFr":"Eau douce"},"nonMigrant":false,"localMigrant":true,"longDistanceMigrant":false,"mobilityMigrationComments":"This species can migrate extraordinary distances. Most movements are limited to several hundred kilometers (Purkett 1961, Moen et al. 1992, Pitman and Parks 1994, Stell et al. 2018, Devine et al. 2020). One individual traveled 2,433 km upriver from Moon Lake, Coahoma County, MS to Gavins Point Dam, Yankton, SD after 272 days (Stell et al. 2018). Another individual in another study moved 2,359 km (Devine et al. 2020).","foodHabitsComments":"Eats mainly zooplankton filtered from water; sometimes also invertebrates found near the bottom and fishes. Stomachs sometimes contain significant amounts of algae and various plant fragments (Becker 1983).","animalPhenologyComments":null,"colonialBreeder":false,"length":150,"width":null,"weight":null,"animalPhenologies":[],"animalFoodHabits":[{"animalCagFoodHabitsId":105937,"foodHabits":{"id":3,"foodHabitsDescEn":"Invertivore","foodHabitsDescEs":"Invertívoro","foodHabitsDescFr":"Invertivore","displayOrder":3},"adult":true,"immature":true}]},"occurrenceDelineations":[{"eoSpecsDetailId":1626,"locationUseClass":{"id":1,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Not applicable","locationUseClassDescEs":"No se aplica","locationUseClassDescFr":"Sans objet","displayOrder":1},"eoSpecGroupName":null,"subtypes":null,"inferredExtentDistance":null,"inferredExtentNotes":null,"minimumEoCriteria":"Occurrences are based on evidence of historical presence, or current and likely recurring presence, at a given location. Such evidence minimally includes collection or reliable observation and documentation of one or more individuals (including larvae or eggs) in appropriate habitat where the species is presumed to be established and  breeding.","mappingGuidance":"Map as a single continuous occurrence all aquatic habitat between all point locations within an occupied river and its major tributaries, except do not include in the occurrence any habitat between a point location and a barrier.","separationBarriers":"Upland habitat. Dams and waterfalls may be barriers on the upstream end of an occurrence but not necessarily on the downstream end.","separationDistanceUnsuitableHabitatat":null,"separationDistanceSuitableHabitatat":null,"altSeparationProcedure":"Generally each major occupied river should be treated as a single occurrence, unless there is a barrier across which movement appears to be absent or negligible. If available, information on the movements or recapture locations of tagged individuals should be used to determine the boundaries of an occurrence. In the absence of adequate data, the best professional judgment of regional fish biologists may be used to delineate occurrences.","separationJustification":"In the absence of barriers, individuals may move 200 miles upstream to spawn (USFWS Southwest Region, Division of Fisheries). In the upper Mississippi River, maximum length of activity range for 32 adults was 92 km (movement was downstream) (Moen et al. 1992). Young have moved up to at least 270 km upstream and up to at least 161 km downstream from stocking locations (Pitman and Parks 1994). Young can move through reservoir floodgates or over spillways into areas below a reservoir (Pitman and Parks 1994). Inter-reservoir transport of larvae may occur (Wallus 1986). <br><br>Because of the difficulty in defining suitable versus unsuitable habitat, especially with respect to dispersal, and to simplify the delineation of occurrences, a single separation distance is used regardless of habitat quality.","versionDate":"2004-09-14","versionAuthor":"Hammerson, G.","versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:24:03.017838Z"}],"plantCharacteristics":null,"elementManagement":{"elementGlobalId":105060,"eoManagementGroupName":null,"stewardshipOverview":null,"impacts":null,"restorationPotential":null,"siteConservationPlansConsidered":null,"managementMethods":"Since 1994, over 1 million hatchery-reared juveniles have been tagged and released to enhance stocks throughout the Mississippi River basin and in several large rivers in Texas (Graham and Rasmussen 1998). <br><br>To address concerns about predation on hatchery-reared age-0 paddlefish, state agencies should consider stocking larger paddlefish where high densities of sauger or large walleyes are present (Parken and Scarnecchia 2002).<br><br>See Scanecchia et al. (1989) for rationale for a harvest slot limit for paddlefish in the upper Mississippi River.","monitoringMethods":"Since 1995, 22 participating states have coded-wire tagged over 6,395 adult wild paddlefish to assess their abundance and migration patterns in the Mississippi River basin. <br><br>See Fredericks and Scarnecchia (1997) for information on using surface visual counts for estimating relative abundance of age-0 paddlefish.","managementProgramContacts":"Eleven states are currently involved in stocking programs.","monitoringProgramContacts":"In 1995, the Mississippi Interstate Cooperative Resource Agency initiated a large-scale range-wide study of paddlefish populations. 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