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E., and D. M. Reeder (editors). 1993. Mammal species of the world: a taxonomic and geographic reference. Second edition. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC. xviii + 1206 pp. Available online at: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/msw/.","conceptName":"<i>Alces alces</i>","taxonomicComments":"NatureServe is following the American Society of Mammalogists (ASM) Mammal Diversity Database and Hundertmark (2016) in recognizing the moose as <i>Alces alces</i>. ASM does not follow the Groves and Grubb (2011) ungulate taxonomy.<br/><br/>Hundertmark (2016): Grubb (in Wilson and Reeder 2005) recognized Eurasian Elk (<i>Alces alces</i>) and Moose (<i>Alces americanus</i>) as distinct species, citing sources that documented differences in karyotype, body dimensions and proportions, form of premaxilla, coloration, and structure and dimensions of antlers (Geist 1998, Boyeskorov 1999). There is still some debate surrounding whether Moose comprise one or two species. Groves and Grubb (1987) called them \"semi-species\". Boeskorov (1997) proposed that the chromosomal races of <i>Alces alces</i> were different species, however, Bowyer et al. (2000) cautioned that chromosome numbers might be a poor designator of species among large mammals. Based on cited sources that documented differences between Eurasian Elk and Moose, Geist (1998) recommended separation at the subspecies level (i.e., <i>Alces alces alces</i> Linneaus, 1758 and <i>Alces alces americanus</i> Clinton, 1822). Geist (1998) noted a broad zone of hybridization between the two forms in central and eastern Siberia but Boeskorov (2003) identifies the Yenisei River as the boundary between the ranges of the two putative species. There are no differences in antler morphology on either side of the river, however, suggesting substantial gene flow (Kolesnikov and Kozlovskii 2014). Moreover, genetic analyses have generally supported distinguishing the two at the subspecific level (Hundertmark et al. 2002 a,b; Udina et al. 2002; Hundertmark and Bowyer 2004); further research is needed before a consensus would support species-level classification.<br/><br/>Hundertmark et al. 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In 2014–2015, an estimated 425,537 licensed moose hunters harvested 82,096 moose in 23 jurisdictions in North America (Timmermann and Rodgers 2017). North American hunter numbers increased by 39,118, whereas total harvest remained virtually unchanged from a decade earlier (Timmermann and Rodgers 2017). Poaching remains a serious threat in parts of North America (Timmermann and Rodgers 2017). Vehicle collisions are a minor threat present in parts of the range (Timmermann and Rodgers 2017, Janík et al. 2021). Climate change is expected to cause habitat shifts, particularly in the southern parts of the range, detrimental to the population (Timmermann and Rodgers 2017).","shortTermTrendComments":"From 2005-2015 in North America, populations in the core parts of the range were declining while peripheral populations were generally increasing (Nadeau et al. 2017, Timmerman and Rodgers 2017).","longTermTrendComments":"There have been multiple documented local declines throughout the range since the late 1800s (Lavsund et al. 2003, Baskin 2009, Timmermann and Rodgers 2017, Janík et al. 2021).","inventoryNeeds":"Continuing efforts to estimate population size needed on a regular basis.","numberProtEosComments":"Many occurrences are protected on conservation lands.","protectionNeeds":null,"otherConsiderations":null,"intrinsicVulnerabilityComments":"Population recovery is slow due to females birthing one calf per year. 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Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC. xviii + 1206 pp. Available online at: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/msw/.","shortCitationAuthor":"Wilson and Reeder","shortCitationYear":1993,"referenceCode":"B93WIL01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T14:38:17.880059Z"},{"id":477777,"citation":"Wilson, D. E., and D. M. Reeder (editors). 2005. Mammal species of the world: a taxonomic and geographic reference. Third edition. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. Two volumes. 2,142 pp. [As modified by ASM the Mammal Diversity Database (MDD) at https://www.mammaldiversity.org/index.html]","shortCitationAuthor":"Wilson and Reeder","shortCitationYear":2005,"referenceCode":"B05WIL01NAUS","lastModified":"2022-07-02T00:44:59.638537Z"}],"otherCommonNames":[],"speciesGlobal":{"elementGlobalId":104982,"cites":null,"cosewic":null,"fwsRegion":null,"genusSize":{"id":2,"genusSizeDescEn":"Very small genus","genusSizeDescEs":"Un género muy pequeño","genusSizeDescFr":"Très petit genre"},"jurisEndem":{"id":5,"jurisEndemDescEn":"occurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations","jurisEndemDescEs":"Se encuentra en varias naciones (de manera regular, como un taxón nativo)","jurisEndemDescFr":"Se trouve dans plusieurs nations (de façon régulière, tel un taxon indigène)"},"nomenclaturallyEst":null,"usesa":null,"informalTaxonomy":{"informalTaxonomyId":6,"level1":"Animals","level2":"Vertebrates","level3":"Mammals","level":3,"hasChildren":false,"parentId":2,"distributionStatus":"complete","displayOrder":1090},"parentSpecies":null,"infraspecies":false,"kingdom":"Animalia","phylum":"Craniata","taxclass":"Mammalia","taxorder":"Artiodactyla","family":"Cervidae","genus":"Alces","americanFisheriesStatus":null,"americanFisheriesStatusDate":null,"saraStatus":null,"saraStatusDate":null,"cosewicDate":null,"interpretedCosewic":null,"cosewicComments":null,"usesaDate":null,"interpretedUsesa":null,"usesaComments":"In a 12-month petition to list a DPS of the U.S. population of northwestern moose (<i>Alces alces andersoni</i>) under the Endangered Species Act, USFWS (2020) find that this population does not meet the criteria for discreteness as a DPS and the petitioned northwestern moose DPS is not a listable entity under the Act.","completeDistribution":true,"synonyms":[{"id":147859,"synonym":"Alces americanus","synonymAuthor":"(Clinton, 1822)","formattedSynonym":"<i>Alces americanus</i>"}],"infraspeciesList":[{"infraspeciesId":792132,"uniqueId":"ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.792132","formattedScientificName":"<i>Alces alces andersoni</i>","scientificName":"Alces alces andersoni","primaryCommonName":"Northwestern Moose","nsxUrl":"/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.792132/Alces_alces_andersoni"},{"infraspeciesId":1237874,"uniqueId":"ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.1237874","formattedScientificName":"<i>Alces alces shirasi</i>","scientificName":"Alces alces shirasi","primaryCommonName":"Shiras Moose","nsxUrl":"/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.1237874/Alces_alces_shirasi"},{"infraspeciesId":741279,"uniqueId":"ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.741279","formattedScientificName":"<i>Alces alces</i> pop. 1","scientificName":"Alces alces pop. 1","primaryCommonName":"Cape Breton Moose","nsxUrl":null},{"infraspeciesId":1201844,"uniqueId":"ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.1201844","formattedScientificName":"<i>Alces alces gigas</i>","scientificName":"Alces alces gigas","primaryCommonName":"Alaskan Moose","nsxUrl":"/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.1201844/Alces_alces_gigas"},{"infraspeciesId":792092,"uniqueId":"ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.792092","formattedScientificName":"<i>Alces alces americana</i>","scientificName":"Alces alces americana","primaryCommonName":"Eastern Moose","nsxUrl":"/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.792092/Alces_alces_americana"}],"ebarId":null,"ebarCanadianScope":false,"ebarGlobalScope":false,"ebarKbaGroup":"Mammals","caGeneralStatusId":"GS001462"},"speciesCharacteristics":{"elementGlobalId":104982,"reproductionComments":"Breeds September-late October; peak in mid-September. Gestation lasts 240-246 days. One calf (less commonly 2) born late May-early June. Sexually mature in 1.5 years, though females do not reach peak productivity until age 4 years and most males do not breed until 5-6 years old due to intrasexual competition.","ecologyComments":"Depending on habitat, home range may be up to several thousand hectares (Lawson and Rodgers 1997). Population density has been reported as up to 1-3 per sq mile (= 11.6 per 10 km²) (Peterson 1955), but 18-20 per 10 km² in unhunted area in eastern Quebec (Crete 1989). May herd in winter.<br/><br/>Winter weather (snow accumulation) may strongly affect populations, even more so than wolf density (Mech et al. 1987); however, Messier (1991) found that competition for food, but not wolf predation and snow, had a regulatory impact on moose. Van Ballenberghie and Ballard (1994) found that in naturally regulated ecosystems predation by bears and wolves often is limiting and may be regulating under certain conditions. See also Messier (1994, Ecology 75:478-488) for population models of moose-wolf interactions.<br/><br/>Under favorable conditions, capable of large annual increases (20-25%) in population size; large populations may degrade habitat, resulting in population crash. See Albright and Keith (1987) for study of population dynamics of introduced population in Newfoundland (poor winter condition but high calf-survival [few predators]).<br/><br/>See Nudds (1990) for discussion of relation between white-tailed deer, moose, and meningeal (brain) worms. Brainworm may limit moose populations in areas where white-tailed deer are common. Deer are not negatively impacted by the brainworm, the larval stage of which is passed in deer feces. Snails, often inadvertently ingested by moose feeding on vegetation, are the intermnediate host for the worm. Deer, through worm-mediated impacts, commonly are believed to exclude moose and caribou from areas where deer occur; however, an analysis by Schmitz and Nudds (1994) concluded that moose may be able to coexist with deer, albeit at lower densities, even in the absence of habitat refuges from the disease. Whitlaw and Lankester (1994) found that the evidence that brainworm has caused moose declines is weak.<br/><br/>Moose may alter the structure and dynamics of boreal forest ecosystems. At Isle Royale, Michigan, moose browsing prevented saplings of preferred species from growing into the tree canopy, resulting in a forest with fewer canopy trees and a well-developed understory of shrubs and herbs; also, browsing may have caused an increase in spruce and a decrease in balsam fir (McInnes et al. 1992).<br/><br/>Arrived in North America from Asia about 11,000-14,000 years ago, shortly before flooding of the Bering land bridge (Hundertmark et al. 2003).","habitatComments":"Prefers mosaic of second-growth forest, openings, swamps, lakes, wetlands. Requires water bodies for foraging and hardwood-conifer forests for winter cover. Avoids hot summer conditions by utilizing dense shade or bodies of water. Mineral licks may be important sodium source, used in early summer in Alaska. In the northern Yellowstone ecosystem, depends on old growth forest in winter (see Maxwell, Audubon, May-June 1994, p. 112). 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