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range; stable or increasing in most areas.","grank":"G5","rankInfo":{"elementGlobalId":104550,"aooPercentGood":null,"enviromentalSpecificity":null,"intrinsicVulnerability":null,"longTermTrend":null,"numberEos":null,"numberGoodEos":null,"numberProtEos":null,"popSize":{"id":33,"popSizeDescEn":"10,000 to >1,000,000 individuals","popSizeDescEs":"De 10.000 a >1.000.000 de individuos","popSizeDescFr":"De 10 000 à >1 000 000 individus"},"rangeExtent":{"id":31,"rangeExtentDescEn":"20,000-2,500,000 square km (about 8000-1,000,000 square miles)","rangeExtentDescEs":"De 20.000 a 2.500.000 kilómetros cuadrados (aproximadamente 8.000 a 1.000.000 de millas cuadradas)","rangeExtentDescFr":"De 20 000 à 2 500 000 km carrés (de 8 000 à 1 000 000 miles carrés approximativement)"},"shortTermTrend":{"id":40,"shortTermTrendDescEn":"Relatively Stable (<=10% change)","shortTermTrendDescEs":"Relativamente estable (variación = <10%)","shortTermTrendDescFr":"Relativement stable (variation = <10 %)"},"threatImpactAssigned":null,"rangeExtentComments":"Breeding range extends from northeastern Siberia, northern Alaska, and middle arctic Canada (to Baffin Island) south locally to northeastern California, Nevada, Wyoming, Colorado, South Dakota, Illinois, and Michigan, formerly south to Nebraska, Indiana, and Ohio; also locally from southern Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia south through Florida to Cuba and Isles of Pines. Winter range extends from the southern United States south to northern Mexico and Cuba.<br><br>See Johnsgard (1983, 1991) for a fairly detailed maps of the breeding and wintering ranges. See Pogson and Lindstedt (1991) for information on specific wintering areas in California.  See files for subspecies.","areaOfOccupancy":null,"areaOfOccupancyComments":null,"numberEosComments":null,"popSizeComments":"Total population is several hundred thousand. The number of birds staging in fall in northwestern Indiana increased from 35 in 1935 to about 14,000 in 1979, reflecting population increases in the Great Lakes region and possibly Manitoba (Johnsgard 1983). Great Lakes population consisted in the mid-1980s of more than 16,000; increased fourfold in numbers over past two decades (Johnsgard 1991, Herkert 1992). Rocky Mountain population was 17,000-20,000 in the mid-1980s (Johnsgard 1991), 20,500 in 1996 (USFWS 1996). In the 1980s, mid-continent population was 400,000-600,000, most of which use the Platte River as an important migration stopover area (Norling et al. 1992). About 25,000 winter in the Central Valley of California, including at least 6000 greater and Canadian sandhill cranes (Pogson and Lindstedt 1991).  Arctic-tundra-breeding populations total 200,000-500,000 (Johnsgard 1991).  G. C. NESIOTES of Cuba and Isle of Pines: total population in 1990 was thought to be 54 (Johnsgard 1991).","viabilityComments":null,"threatImpactComments":"Threatened by loss and degradation of wetland habitats. Collisions with powerlines have been noted as a significant source of mortality in the Rocky Mountains. Breeding population in southern and southeastern Oregon and northeastern California is threatened by high levels of nest and chick predation by ravens, coyotes, and raccoons, though predator control efforts have alleviated the threat (Johnsgard 1991, Littlefield 1995). Breeding populations disappear from areas of heavy human use.","shortTermTrendComments":"Great Lakes population increased greatly in the 1970s and 1980s (Johnsgard 1991, Heckert 1992). Breeding populations of greater sandhill crane in Canada evidently were increasing in the 1970s (Stephen, 1979 COSEWIC report). Mid-continent population appears to have stabilized following dramatic increases in the early 1980s (USFWS 1996). Annual surveys of the Rocky Mountain population suggest a relatively stable population since 1984 (USFWS 1996).  Low recruitment in California/Oregon may eventually lead to a population decline (California Department of Fish and Game 1990). Population that breeds in southern and southeastern Oregon and northeastern California is the only population of greater sandhill cranes that is declining in at least some parts of its range (Johnsgard 1991). Population at Malheur NWR in Oregon declined from 236 breeding pairs in 1975 to 168 in 1989, increased to previous level in mid-1990s (due to predator control) (Littlefield 1995).","longTermTrendComments":null,"inventoryNeeds":null,"numberProtEosComments":"Two major wildlife sanctuaries have been established on the part of the Platte River that offers the best remaining habitat: the Lillian Annette Rowe Sanctuary near Kearney (Audubon Society) and the Mormon Island Crane Meadows Sanctuary (Whooping Crane Trust) near Grand Island (Johnsgard 1991).","protectionNeeds":null,"otherConsiderations":null,"intrinsicVulnerabilityComments":null,"enviromentalSpecificityComments":null},"animalCharacteristics":{"elementGlobalId":104550,"majorHabitat":{"id":3,"majorHabitatDescEn":"Terrestrial","majorHabitatDescEs":"Terrestre","majorHabitatDescFr":"Terrestre"},"nonMigrant":true,"localMigrant":false,"longDistanceMigrant":true,"mobilityMigrationComments":"Nesting populations in Alaska arrive on breeding grounds from late April to mid-May, depart mainly from late August to early October, arrive in California in December and in Texas from October to January. Migrants depart California beginning in late February. Departure from Texas wintering areas occurs mainly from late February to early March.<br /><br />Populations of nesting in the contiguous western United States depart breeding grounds from September to November. Cranes from the Rocky Mountain population arrive in the San Luis Valley (Colorado) by late August, peak in October, depart in November. Northbound cranes arrive back in San Luis Valley in early Februry, depart mainly in late March-early April, arrive back on nesting areas in early April.<br /><br />Eastern nesting populations depart nesting areas from late September to early December, with peak departures in early October. They arrive on Florida wintering areas by late October, with most arrivals by mid-November to mid-December. Departure from Florida occurs from late February to early April (mainly early March. Arrival in nesting areas occurs primarily in early to mid-April. The Jasper-Pulaski Game Area in northwestern Indiana is the only known major fall staging area for the eastern population (Johnsgard 1983).<br /><br />North Platte and Platte River valleys are important spring staging areas, early March to mid-April; the Platte Valley harbors (in late March) the largest crane concentration in the world; in 1985, total spring population in Platte Valley was estimated at 515,000. <br /><br />About 150,00-200,000 of the mid-continent migrants move through upper Tanana River Valley in eastern Alaska, primarily late April to mid-May and late August-early October (especially second half of September); these summer in most of interior and western Alaska and northeastern Siberia, and winter mostly in eastern New Mexico, western Texas, and adjacent northern Mexico (Kessel 1984). Another 22,000-25,000 move north from central California through the interior of British Columbia and stage on the Copper River Delta, Alaska (Littlefield and Thompson 1982; C. D. Littlefield, pers. comm., in Campbell et al. 1990). <br /><br />More than half of the wintering population of large sandhill cranes in the Central Valley of California may originate in coastal and interior British Columbia (Pogson and Lindstedt 1991). <br /><br />See Johnsgard (1983, 1991) for fairly detailed maps indicating the fall migration routes of various populations. <br /><br />Subspecies PRATENSIS and PULLA are resident along sections of the Gulf Coast.","foodHabitsComments":"Feeds on roots, tubers, seeds, grain, berries, small vertebrates (mice, lemmings, birds, snakes, lizards, etc.), earthworms, and insects. Forages in marshes, meadows, pastures, and fields (Terres 1980). Most food items are obtained on the surface of the ground or among low vegetation; also may use bill to dig out roots and tubers. Feeding in fields occurs primarily in nonbreeding areas. Young forage for invertebrates during first few weeks of life. In spring in Nebraska, forages in cornfields, native grasslands, and planted haylands, generally a few to several kilometers from roost site (Sparling and Krapu 1994).","animalPhenologyComments":"In the Platte River area, flights from roosts occur primarily shortly after sunrise; often returns to roost site around sunset (Johnsgard 1983).","colonialBreeder":false,"length":104,"width":null,"weight":5797,"animalPhenologies":[{"animalCagPhenologyId":103009,"animalPhenology":{"id":3,"animalPhenologyDescEn":"Diurnal","animalPhenologyDescEs":"Diurno","animalPhenologyDescFr":"Diurne","displayOrder":3},"adult":true,"immature":true}],"animalFoodHabits":[{"animalCagFoodHabitsId":105544,"foodHabits":{"id":1,"foodHabitsDescEn":"Carnivore","foodHabitsDescEs":"Carnívoro","foodHabitsDescFr":"Carnivore","displayOrder":1},"adult":true,"immature":true},{"animalCagFoodHabitsId":105545,"foodHabits":{"id":3,"foodHabitsDescEn":"Invertivore","foodHabitsDescEs":"Invertívoro","foodHabitsDescFr":"Invertivore","displayOrder":3},"adult":true,"immature":true},{"animalCagFoodHabitsId":105546,"foodHabits":{"id":4,"foodHabitsDescEn":"Herbivore","foodHabitsDescEs":"Herbívoro","foodHabitsDescFr":"Herbivore","displayOrder":4},"adult":true,"immature":true},{"animalCagFoodHabitsId":105547,"foodHabits":{"id":5,"foodHabitsDescEn":"Granivore","foodHabitsDescEs":"Granívoro","foodHabitsDescFr":"Granivore","displayOrder":5},"adult":true,"immature":true},{"animalCagFoodHabitsId":105548,"foodHabits":{"id":6,"foodHabitsDescEn":"Frugivore","foodHabitsDescEs":"Frugívoro","foodHabitsDescFr":"Frugivore","displayOrder":6},"adult":true,"immature":true}]},"occurrenceDelineations":[{"eoSpecsDetailId":1464,"locationUseClass":{"id":2,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Breeding","locationUseClassDescEs":"En reproducción","locationUseClassDescFr":"Reproduction","displayOrder":2},"eoSpecGroupName":"Sandhill Crane","subtypes":null,"inferredExtentDistance":2.4,"inferredExtentNotes":"Based on an average home range of an adult pair of 447 hectares (Nesbitt and Williams 1990).","minimumEoCriteria":"Evidence of breeding (including historical); and potential recurring breeding at a given location, minimally a reliable observation of one or more breeding pairs in appropriate habitat. Be cautious about creating EOs for observations that may represent single breeding events outside the normal breeding distribution.","mappingGuidance":null,"separationBarriers":"None.","separationDistanceUnsuitableHabitatat":15.0,"separationDistanceSuitableHabitatat":15.0,"altSeparationProcedure":null,"separationJustification":"Based on large home ranges of about 2100 hectares; in Florida, home ranges averaged 447 hectares for 20 adult pairs and 2,132 hectares for 9 subadults (Nesbitt and Williams 1990).","versionDate":"2001-10-09","versionAuthor":"Cannings, S. G.","versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2021-10-02T17:03:55.249526Z"},{"eoSpecsDetailId":1462,"locationUseClass":{"id":3,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Nonbreeding","locationUseClassDescEs":"No reproducción","locationUseClassDescFr":"Non-reproduction","displayOrder":3},"eoSpecGroupName":"Sandhill Crane","subtypes":null,"inferredExtentDistance":null,"inferredExtentNotes":null,"minimumEoCriteria":"Evidence of recurring presence of wintering flocks (including historical); and potential recurring presence at a given location, minimally a reliable observation of 50 birds in appropriate habitat. Occurrences should be locations where the species is resident for some time during the appropriate season; it is preferable to have observations documenting presence over at least 20 days annually. Be cautious about creating EOs for observations that may represent single events.","mappingGuidance":null,"separationBarriers":"None.","separationDistanceUnsuitableHabitatat":10.0,"separationDistanceSuitableHabitatat":10.0,"altSeparationProcedure":null,"separationJustification":"Arbitrary distance; occurrences defined primarily on the basis of areas supporting concentrations of roosting or foraging birds, rather than on the basis of distinct populations.","versionDate":"2002-04-17","versionAuthor":"Cannings, S.","versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2021-10-02T17:03:55.249526Z"},{"eoSpecsDetailId":1463,"locationUseClass":{"id":4,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Migratory stopover","locationUseClassDescEs":"Parada migratoria","locationUseClassDescFr":"Halte migratoire","displayOrder":5},"eoSpecGroupName":"Sandhill Crane","subtypes":null,"inferredExtentDistance":null,"inferredExtentNotes":null,"minimumEoCriteria":"Evidence of recurring presence of migrating flocks (including historical); and potential recurring presence at a given location, minimally a reliable observation of 50 birds in appropriate habitat. Occurrences should be locations where the species is resident for some time during the appropriate season; it is preferable to have observations documenting presence over at least 7 days annually. Be cautious about creating EOs for observations that may represent single events.","mappingGuidance":null,"separationBarriers":"None.","separationDistanceUnsuitableHabitatat":10.0,"separationDistanceSuitableHabitatat":10.0,"altSeparationProcedure":null,"separationJustification":"Arbitrary distance; occurrences defined primarily on the basis of areas supporting concentrations of roosting or foraging birds, rather than on the basis of distinct populations.","versionDate":"2002-04-17","versionAuthor":"Cannings, S.","versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2021-10-02T17:03:55.249526Z"}],"plantCharacteristics":null,"elementManagement":{"elementGlobalId":104550,"eoManagementGroupName":null,"stewardshipOverview":null,"impacts":null,"restorationPotential":null,"siteConservationPlansConsidered":null,"managementMethods":"Current management of crane roosting habitat in Nebraska includes maintenance of water flows and costly mechanical removal of woody vegetation (see Folk and Tacha 1990). See California Department of Fish and Game (1990) for a brief summary of habitat protection efforts in California, where most wintering sites of large sandhill cranes are in private ownership and the majority of the nocturnal roosts are on privately owned waterfowl hunting areas (Pogson and Lindstedt 1991). See Littlefield and Paullin (1990) for information on the effect of land management on nesting success in Oregon. <br><br>Under conditions of low visibility, sandhill cranes are very susceptible to collisions with powerlines (Biosystems Analysis 1989). In Nebraska, yellow aviation balls were effective in reducing collisions with powerlines (Morkill and Anderson 1991). <br><br>See Wheeler and Lewis (1972) for trapping/banding techniques. See Zwank and Wilson (1987) for information on successful release of captive, parent-reared cranes of endangered Mississippi subspecies PULLA.","monitoringMethods":null,"managementProgramContacts":null,"monitoringProgramContacts":null,"managementResearchPrograms":null,"managementResearchNeeds":null,"biologicalResearchNeeds":null,"additionalTopics":null},"occurrenceViabilities":[{"eoRankSpecsDetailId":106000,"eoRankSpecsGroupName":null,"locationUseClass":{"id":1,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Not applicable","locationUseClassDescEs":"No se aplica","locationUseClassDescFr":"Sans objet","displayOrder":1},"excellentViability":null,"goodViability":null,"fairViability":null,"poorViability":null,"viabilityJustification":"Use the Generic Guidelines for the Application of Occurrence Ranks (2008).<br>The Key for Ranking Species Occurrences Using the Generic Approach provides a step-wise process for implementing this method.","versionDate":null,"versionAuthor":null,"versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2020-05-14T02:26:56.52583Z"}],"references":[{"id":153779,"citation":"American Ornithologists' Union (AOU). 1983. 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Fifty-seventh Supplement to the American Ornithologists' Union Check-list of North American Birds. The Auk 133:544-560.","shortCitationAuthor":"American Ornithologists' Union (AOU)","shortCitationYear":2016,"referenceCode":"A16AOU01EHUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:12:15.272707Z"},{"id":138788,"citation":"Biosystems Analysis, Inc. 1989. Endangered Species Alert Program Manual: Species Accounts and Procedures. Southern California Edison Environmental Affairs Division.","shortCitationAuthor":"Biosystems Analysis, Inc.","shortCitationYear":1989,"referenceCode":"B89BIO01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:12:17.413413Z"},{"id":463505,"citation":"BirdLife International. 2004b. Threatened birds of the world 2004. CD ROM. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK.","shortCitationAuthor":"BirdLife International","shortCitationYear":2004,"referenceCode":"N04BIR0100LA","lastModified":"2020-02-25T14:38:12.704742Z"},{"id":100114,"citation":"Buller, R. J. 1979. Lesser and Canadian sandhill crane populations, age structure, and harvest. U.S. Dept. Int., FWS. Special Scientific Report-Wildlife No. 221. 10 pp.","shortCitationAuthor":"Buller","shortCitationYear":1979,"referenceCode":"B79BUL01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:22:54.954235Z"},{"id":143480,"citation":"California Department of Fish and Game (CDF&G). 1990. 1989 annual report on the status of California's state listed threatened and endangered plants and animals. 188 pp.","shortCitationAuthor":"California Department of Fish and Game (CDF&G)","shortCitationYear":1990,"referenceCode":"U90CAL01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:12:17.413413Z"},{"id":148484,"citation":"Folk, M. J., and T. C. Tacha. 1990. Sandhill crane roost site characteristics in the North Platte River Valley. J. Wildl. 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Illinois Endangered Species Protection Board. iv + 142 pp.","shortCitationAuthor":"Herkert","shortCitationYear":1992,"referenceCode":"B92HER01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:12:16.116448Z"},{"id":134523,"citation":"Iverson, G. C., P. A. Vohs, and T. C. Tacha. 1987. Habitat use by mid-continent sandhill cranes during spring migration. J. Wildl. Manage. 51:448-458.","shortCitationAuthor":"Iverson et al.","shortCitationYear":1987,"referenceCode":"A87IVE01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:15:45.182122Z"},{"id":140669,"citation":"Johnsgard, P. A. 1983a. Cranes of the world. Indiana Univ. Press, Bloomington. xiii + 258 pp.","shortCitationAuthor":"Johnsgard","shortCitationYear":1983,"referenceCode":"B83JOH01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:15:45.182122Z"},{"id":129699,"citation":"Johnsgard, P. A. 1991. Crane music: a natural history of American cranes. Smithsonian Inst. 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