{"elementGlobalId":104488,"circumscripConfidence":null,"classificationLevel":{"id":7,"classificationLevelNameEn":"Species","classificationLevelNameEs":"Especies","classificationLevelNameFr":"Espèce"},"classificationStatus":{"id":1,"classificationStatusDescEn":"Standard","classificationStatusDescEs":"Estándar","classificationStatusDescFr":"Standard"},"iucn":{"id":5,"iucnDescEn":"Vulnerable","iucnDescEs":"Vulnerable","iucnDescFr":"Vulnérable","iucnCode":"VU"},"nameCategory":{"id":1,"nameCategoryDescEn":"Vertebrate Animal","nameCategoryDescEs":"Animal vertebrado","nameCategoryDescFr":"Animal vertébré","nameTypeCd":"A","nameTypeDesc":"Zoological"},"rankMethodUsed":{"id":7,"rankMethodUsedDescEn":" Rank calculation - Biotics v2","rankMethodUsedDescEs":null,"rankMethodUsedDescFr":null,"rankMethodUsedExternalDescEn":"Ranked by calculator","rankMethodUsedExternalDescEs":null,"rankMethodUsedExternalDescFr":null},"formattedScientificName":"<i>Ambystoma californiense</i>","scientificName":"Ambystoma californiense","scientificNameAuthor":"Gray, 1853","primaryCommonName":"California Tiger Salamander","relatedItisNames":"<i>Ambystoma californiense</i> Gray, 1853 (TSN 173595)","uniqueId":"ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.104488","elcode":"AAAAA01180","conceptRefFullCitation":"Collins, J. T. 1990. Standard common and current scientific names for North American amphibians and reptiles. 3rd ed. Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles. Herpetological Circular No. 19. 41 pp.","conceptName":"<i>Ambystoma californiense</i>","taxonomicComments":"Formerly regarded as a subspecies of <i>Ambystoma tigrinum</i>. <br/><br/>Based on genetic analysis, there are six populations of California tiger salamanders, distributed as follows: (1) Santa Rosa area of Sonoma County; (2) Bay Area (central and southern Alameda, Santa Clara, western Stanislaus, western Merced, and the majority of San Benito counties); (3) Central Valley (Yolo, Sacramento, Solano, eastern Contra Costa, northeast Alameda, San Joaquin, Stanislaus, Merced, and northwestern Madera counties); (4) southern San Joaquin Valley (portions of Madera, central Fresno, and northern Tulare and Kings counties); (5) Central Coast Range (southern Santa Cruz, Monterey, northern San Luis Obispo, and portions of western San Benito, Fresno, and Kern counties); and (6) Santa Barbara County (Shaffer and Trenham 2002).<br/><br/>USFWS (2000, 2002) reviewed the biogeographical and genetic information supporting the recognition of the Santa Barbara County population and Sonoma County population as distinct population segments under the U.S. Endangered Species Act.","roundedGRank":"G3","conservationStatusFactorsEditionDate":"2025-05-18","conservationStatusFactorsEditionAuthors":"Hammerson, G. (2011); rev. R L. Gundy (2025)","primaryCommonNameLanguage":"EN","recordType":"SPECIES","elementNationals":[{"elementNationalId":165121,"classifConfidence":null,"nation":{"id":225,"nameEn":"United States","nameEs":"Estados Unidos","nameFr":"États-Unis","isoCode":"US","region":"United States"},"roundedNRank":"N2","elementSubnationals":[{"elementSubnationalId":300593,"subnation":{"id":7,"nameEn":"California","nameEs":"California","nameFr":"Californie","subnationCode":"CA","dnationId":225},"roundedSRank":"SNR","dataSensitive":{"id":2,"dataSensitiveDescEn":"No","dataSensitiveDescEs":null,"dataSensitiveDescFr":null,"dataSensitiveCode":"N"},"dataSensitiveCategory":null,"srank":"SNR","speciesSubnational":{"elementSubnationalId":300593,"hybrid":false,"exotic":false,"native":true}}],"nrankReviewYear":2001,"nrank":"N2N3","speciesNational":{"elementNationalId":165121,"exotic":false,"native":true}}],"lastModified":"2026-10-02T21:43:51.980103Z","lastPublished":"2026-10-02T21:32:08.892226Z","promotionalDescription":null,"conceptLineageSummary":null,"nsxUrl":"/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.104488/Ambystoma_californiense","grankAdjustmentReasons":null,"grankChangeDate":"2025-05-18","grankReviewDate":"2025-05-18","grankReasons":"This species is endemic to California. There are nearly 600 extant occurrences. However, only about 10% are currently protected. This species is highly threatened by habitat loss due to conversion to agriculture and urban development, habitat degradation, invasive species, disease, and road mortality.","grank":"G3","rankInfo":{"elementGlobalId":104488,"aooPercentGood":null,"enviromentalSpecificity":{"id":5,"enviromentalSpecificityDescEn":"Narrow.  Specialist or community with key requirements common.","enviromentalSpecificityDescEs":"Estrecho.  Especialista o comunidad con requisitos claves comunes.","enviromentalSpecificityDescFr":"Étroit. Spécialistes ou communautés répondant aux critères clés sont répandues."},"intrinsicVulnerability":{"id":4,"intrinsicVulnerabilityDescEn":"Moderately vulnerable","intrinsicVulnerabilityDescEs":"Moderadamente vulnerable","intrinsicVulnerabilityDescFr":"Moyennement vulnérable"},"longTermTrend":{"id":26,"longTermTrendDescEn":"Decline of 30-70%","longTermTrendDescEs":"Disminución del 30 al 70%.","longTermTrendDescFr":"Diminution de 30 à 70 %"},"numberEos":{"id":15,"numberEosDescEn":"> 300","numberEosDescEs":"> 300","numberEosDescFr":"> 300"},"numberGoodEos":{"id":21,"numberGoodEosDescEn":"Very many (>125)","numberGoodEosDescEs":"Muchos (>125)","numberGoodEosDescFr":"Beaucoup (>125)"},"numberProtEos":{"id":15,"numberProtEosDescEn":"Very many (>40) occurrences appropriately protected and managed","numberProtEosDescEs":"Muchas ocurrencias (>40) protegidas y controladas adecuadamente","numberProtEosDescFr":"Beaucoup d’occurrences (>40) protégées et contrôlées convenablement"},"popSize":{"id":31,"popSizeDescEn":"10,000 - 100,000 individuals","popSizeDescEs":"De 10.000 a 100.000 individuos","popSizeDescFr":"De 10 000 à 100 000 individus"},"rangeExtent":{"id":30,"rangeExtentDescEn":"20,000-200,000 square km (about 8000-80,000 square miles)","rangeExtentDescEs":"De 20.000 a 200.000 kilómetros cuadrados (aproximadamente 8.000 a 80.000.000 millas cuadradas)","rangeExtentDescFr":"De 20 000 à 200 000 km carrés (de 8 000 à 80 000 000 miles carrés approximativement)"},"shortTermTrend":{"id":36,"shortTermTrendDescEn":"Decline of 10-30%","shortTermTrendDescEs":"Disminución del 10 al 30%.","shortTermTrendDescFr":"Diminution de 10 à 30 %"},"threatImpactAssigned":{"id":2,"threatImpactAssignedDescEn":"Very high - high","threatImpactAssignedDescEs":"Muy alto - alto","threatImpactAssignedDescFr":"Très élevé — élevé"},"rangeExtentComments":"This species is endemic to California, United States. The species has a discontinuous distribution in west-central California: coast ranges between Sonoma and Santa Barbara counties, Central Valley and surrounding foothills from southern Colusa County to northwestern Kern County on the west side of the valley and southern Butte County to northern Tulare County on the east side. Elevational range from near sea level to 1054 m. Using extant occurrences in the California Natural Diversity Database (CNDDB) (2025), range extent is estimated to be 74,502 km² (RARECAT 2025).","areaOfOccupancy":{"id":91,"areaOfOccupancyType":{"id":4,"areaOfOccupancyTypeDescEn":"4-km2 grid cells","areaOfOccupancyTypeDescEs":"Células de la cuadrícula de 4 km2","areaOfOccupancyTypeDescFr":"Cellules de grille de 4 km2"},"areaOfOccupancyDescEn":"126-2,500","areaOfOccupancyDescEs":"De 126 a 2.500","areaOfOccupancyDescFr":"De 126 à 2 500","bioticsKey":38},"areaOfOccupancyComments":"Using extant CNDDB (2025) occurrences, area of occupancy is estimated to be 1,540 km², or 385 grid cells (RARECAT 2025). This species has three distinct regions which have been identified as distinct population segments (DPS) by USFWS: Central California, Sonoma County, and Santa Barbara County (USFWS 2021, USFWS 2022, USFWS 2023).<br/><br/>USFWS (2004) estimated that there are 3,788 km² (947 grid cells) of habitat associated with known records. This estimate excludes unsuitable habitat (urbanized areas, areas of intensive agriculture) and assumes that salamanders occupy an area extending approximately 2 km (2,092 m) around each known occupied location. Use of the latter assumption, based on the maximum known distance a salamander may migrate from a breeding site, likely leads to an overestimate of the extent of occupied area for known populations, but USFWS (2004) concluded the overestimate is not a significant error \"because additional California tiger salamander breeding locations that have not been surveyed are likely to exist within the 2,092-m (1.3-mi) boundary.\" While this may be true, the area of <i>known </i>occupied habitat is probably considerably less than 3,788 sq. km and easily could be closer to half that amount (probably most individuals move less than 1 km from the breeding site) (see USFWS 2004:47216).","numberEosComments":"There are 592 extant occurrences in the California Natural Diversity Database (2025).","popSizeComments":"Total adult population size is unknown but likely exceeds 10,000 and could be several tens of thousands. Each breeding pond generally has dozens to 200 or so individuals (USFWS 2021, USFWS 2022, USFWS 2023).","viabilityComments":"Of 592 extant occurrences, 358 are ranked as having excellent or good viability (CNDDB 2025).","threatImpactComments":"The primary threat to this species is the loss and degradation of habitat due to conversion of natural habitat to agriculture and urban development (USFWS 2021, USFWS 2022, USFWS 2023). Twenty years after listing, this species has still not received adequate habitat protection to meet the recovery criteria for any of the distinct population segments (USFWS 2021, USFWS 2022, USFWS 2023). Another form of habitat degradation has been the loss of small burrowing mammals, which provide essential underground habitat for this salamander (USFWS 2021, USFWS 2022, USFWS 2023).<br/><br/>Other secondary threats include invasive species, disease, and pollution. Invasive predatory animals (bullfrogs, crayfish, various fishes) that may temporarily occupy salamander breeding habitat consume eggs and larvae. Hybridization with the barred tiger salamander (<i>Ambystoma mavortium</i>) is a concern due to genetic swamping, competition, and predation (Cooper and Shaffer 2020, USFWS 2021, USFWS 2022, USFWS 2023). A trematode (<i>Ribeiroia ondatrae</i>) transmitted from snails and transported by birds was associated with a large mortality event in Santa Cruz County in 2019 (Keller et al. 2021). Experimental laboratory studies have shown that ranavirus carried by other tiger salamander species can be very fatal for this species (Picco et al. 2007). Chytrid fungus (<i>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</i>) has been detected in this species, but has not been attributed to any large-scale mortality events (Padgett-Flohr and Longcore 2005, USFWS 2016). Use of pesticides for mosquito abatement may reduce food resources for salamanders (USFWS 2023). Contaminated runoff from roads may adversely affect salamanders in breeding sites (USFWS 2022). Road mortality can also be a threat in some areas.","shortTermTrendComments":"Due to the difficulty of assessing population size and the large variance in breeding pond occupation from year to year, population trends are not known (USFWS 2021, USFWS 2022, USFWS 2023). However, it is likely declining.","longTermTrendComments":"Eliminated from 55-58% of historical breeding sites; reportedly about 75% of the historical vernal pool breeding habitat has been lost (Holland 1998) (though some question the reliability of this estimate). In Santa Barbara County, of 14 documented breeding sites, half were destroyed or have suffered severe degradation since mid-1999 (USFWS 2000). Studies cited by USFWS (2004) indicate that losses of vernal pool habitat were about 1.5% annually in the 1980s and 1990s. Assuming a generation time of 8 years (generation time is the average age of parents of the current cohort), the breeding habitat decline (and consequently the population decline) would be roughly 36% over three generations (24 years; see IUCN Red List criteria). Sonoma County population: in the past two years, four breeding sites have been destroyed or have suffered severe degradation; only seven remain (USFWS 2002).","inventoryNeeds":"Robust population estimates and population trend assessments are needed.","numberProtEosComments":"The Sonoma County DPS has breeding ponds on 6 conservation lands (USFWS 2021). Six known breeding ponds of the Santa Barbara County DPS are protected, all on private conservation easements (USFWS 2016, USFWS 2022). There are 51 protected sites within the range of the Central California DPS (USFWS 2021).<br/><br/>USFWS (2005) decided that none of the potential critical habitat for the Sonoma County DPS would de designated as critical habitat, based on interim conservation strategies and measures being implemented by those local governing agencies with land use authority over the area and also as a result of economic exclusions authorized under section 4(b)(2) of the Endangered Species Act.","protectionNeeds":"Acquire and restore critical habitat. Protect small mammals to improve habitat quality. Maintain a 1 km buffer of natural upland communities surrounding occupied breeding ponds (Orloff 2011). Provide many culverts along existing roads separating upland habitats from occupied breeding ponds (Brehme et al. 2021). Prevent any further road construction that would fragment habitat. Eliminate non-native predators and competitors.","otherConsiderations":null,"intrinsicVulnerabilityComments":"Populations can recover from drastic declines over a period of a few years, with high recruitment of juveniles. Given normal dispersal distances (see occurrence specifications), recolonization of habitats from which extirpated may be slow to absent if nearby populations within about 0.5-1 km are also extirpated.<br/>This species has low survival rates into adulthood, takes 4-6 years to mature, and several populations are so small and isolated that stochastic events could present major population declines (Trenham 1998, USFWS 2002, USFWS 2021, USFWS 2022, USFWS 2023). USFWS (2002) reported the following: Lifetime reproductive success is low. Trenham (1998) found the average female bred 1.3 times and produced 8.5 young that survived to metamorphosis per reproductive effort; this resulted in roughly 11 metamorphic offspring over the lifetime of a female. One of the reasons for the low reproductive success is because individuals do not breed until they are 4 to 6 years old. While individuals may survive for more than 10 years, many may breed only once, and, in some populations, less than 5 percent of marked juveniles survive to become breeding adults (Trenham 1998). With such low recruitment, isolated populations can decline greatly from unusual, randomly occurring natural events as well as from human-caused factors that reduce breeding success and individual survival. Factors that repeatedly lower breeding success in isolated ponds that are too far from other ponds for migrating individuals to replenish the population can quickly extirpate a population.","enviromentalSpecificityComments":"Species is a generalist with respect to terrestrial habitats, but reproduction is largely dependent on fishless bodies of water (USFWS 2021, USFWS 2022, USFWS 2023)."},"animalCharacteristics":{"elementGlobalId":104488,"majorHabitat":{"id":2,"majorHabitatDescEn":"Freshwater","majorHabitatDescEs":"Agua dulce","majorHabitatDescFr":"Eau douce"},"nonMigrant":false,"localMigrant":true,"longDistanceMigrant":false,"mobilityMigrationComments":"Migrates up to about 2 km between terrestrial habitat and breeding pond (S. Sweet, cited by USFWS 2002); rain storms precede major migrations to the breeding sites, with most migration on rainy nights.<br /><br />During the first night's emigration from a breeding pond, individuals moved up to 129 m from the pond; most moved less than 80 m; total distance moved on subsequent nights were not determined (Loredo et al. 1996). For 8 radio-tagged individuals followed for up to 4 months, Trenham (2001) found that the maximum distance moved from the breeding pond was 248 m (mean = 94 m).<br /><br />Juveniles have been observed to migrate up to 1.6 km from breeding ponds to estivation areas (Austin and Shaffer 1992).<br /><br />Migrations may occur from November through April (Holland et al. 1990).","foodHabitsComments":"Larvae eat various aquatic invertebrates and amphibian larvae. Adults eat terrestrial invertebrates and sometimes small vertebrates.","animalPhenologyComments":"Inactive in cold or hot temperatures. Adults remain in underground burrows or crevices for much of the year, but they emerge to breed during the rainy season.","colonialBreeder":true,"length":22,"width":null,"weight":null,"animalPhenologies":[{"animalCagPhenologyId":102989,"animalPhenology":{"id":1,"animalPhenologyDescEn":"Hibernates/aestivates","animalPhenologyDescEs":"Hibernación/Estivación","animalPhenologyDescFr":"Hiberne/estive","displayOrder":1},"adult":true,"immature":true},{"animalCagPhenologyId":102990,"animalPhenology":{"id":4,"animalPhenologyDescEn":"Nocturnal","animalPhenologyDescEs":"Nocturno","animalPhenologyDescFr":"Nocturne","displayOrder":4},"adult":true,"immature":true}],"animalFoodHabits":[{"animalCagFoodHabitsId":105501,"foodHabits":{"id":1,"foodHabitsDescEn":"Carnivore","foodHabitsDescEs":"Carnívoro","foodHabitsDescFr":"Carnivore","displayOrder":1},"adult":true,"immature":true},{"animalCagFoodHabitsId":105502,"foodHabits":{"id":3,"foodHabitsDescEn":"Invertivore","foodHabitsDescEs":"Invertívoro","foodHabitsDescFr":"Invertivore","displayOrder":3},"adult":true,"immature":true}]},"occurrenceDelineations":[{"eoSpecsDetailId":1000,"locationUseClass":{"id":1,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Not applicable","locationUseClassDescEs":"No se aplica","locationUseClassDescFr":"Sans objet","displayOrder":1},"eoSpecGroupName":"Ambystomatid Salamanders","subtypes":null,"inferredExtentDistance":0.3,"inferredExtentNotes":"Inferred extent distance pertains to breeding sites (with the center of the circle in the center of the breeding site). Most ambystomatids stay within a few hundred meters of their breeding pool (see separation justification section).","minimumEoCriteria":"Occurrences are based on evidence of historical presence, or current and likely recurring presence, at a given location. Such evidence minimally includes collection or reliable observation and documentation of one or more individuals (including larvae or eggs) in or near appropriate habitat where the species is presumed to be established and  breeding.","mappingGuidance":null,"separationBarriers":"Heavily traveled road, especially at night during salamander breeding season, such that salamanders almost never successfully traverse the road; road with a barrier that is impermeable to salamanders; wide, fast rivers; areas of intensive development dominated by buildings and pavement.","separationDistanceUnsuitableHabitatat":1.0,"separationDistanceSuitableHabitatat":3.0,"altSeparationProcedure":null,"separationJustification":"BARRIERS/UNSUITABLE HABITAT: Rivers may or may not be effective barriers, depending on stream width and hydrodynamics; identification of streams as barriers is a subjective determination. Bodies of water dominated by predatory fishes have been described as barriers but probably should be regarded as unsuitable habitat. For A. barbouri, a stream-pool breeder, predatory fishes appeared to act as a barrier to larval dispersal and gene flow for populations separated by as little as 500-1000 m (Storfer 1999). Highly disturbed land, such as the cleared and bedded soils of some silvicultural site preparation, may serve as an impediment to movement of A. cingulatum (Means et al. 1996), although Ashton (1998) noted the species' use of pine plantations, pastures, and three-year-old clearcuts. Such areas should be treated as unsuitable habitat rather than barriers. <br><br>MOVEMENTS: Palis's (1997b) suggested use of 3.2 km between breeding sites to distinguish breeding populations of A. cingulatum was based on Ashton's (1992) finding that individuals may move as much as 1.6 km from their breeding ponds. Ambystoma californiense sometimes migrates up to 2 km between breeding ponds and terrestrial habitat (see USFWS 2004). Funk and Dunlap (1999) found that A. macrodactylum managed to recolonize lakes after trout extirpation despite evidence of low levels of interpopulation dispersal. Based on a review of several Ambystoma species (e.g., Semlitsch 1981, Douglas and Monroe 1981, Kleeberger and Werner 1983, Madison 1997), Semlitsch (1998) concluded that a radius of less than 200 meters around a breeding pond would likely encompass the terrestrial habitat used by more than 95 percent of adults. Faccio's (2003) study of radio-tagged A. maculatum and A. jeffersonianum in Vermont supports this conclusion. In New York, all movements of A. tigrinum occurred in areas within 300 m of the nearest breeding pond (Madison and Farrand 1998). However, most studies of these salamanders had small sample sizes and/or were not designed to detect long-distance movements, so migration distance may be somewhat underestimated.<br><br>In summary, ambystomatid salamanders generally stay within a few hundred meters of their breeding pool. Due to high breeding site fidelity and limitation of breeding to pool basins, populations using different breeding sites exhibit little or no interbreeding among adults. Thus one might argue that each pool constitutes a separate occurrence or that the separation distance for suitable habitat should be the nominal minimum of 1 km. However, little is known about how frequently first-time (or experienced) breeders use non-natal pools (pools from which they did not originate) or how far they may move to such sites. Frequent colonization of new and remote habitats by at least some species suggests that dispersal movements sometimes may be longer than typical adult migration distances. It seems unlikely that locations separated by a gap of less than a few kilometers of suitable habitat would represent independent occurrences over the long term.","versionDate":"2004-09-10","versionAuthor":"Hammerson, G.","versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2020-04-30T02:04:15.597347Z"}],"plantCharacteristics":null,"elementManagement":{"elementGlobalId":104488,"eoManagementGroupName":null,"stewardshipOverview":null,"impacts":null,"restorationPotential":null,"siteConservationPlansConsidered":"Isolated breeding ponds may be insufficient for long-term maintenance of viable populations (Trenham et al. 2000).","managementMethods":"For the Lagunita population at Stanford University, Barry and Shaffer (1994) recommended construction of a drift fence and tunnel system to divert migrating adults and juveniles underneath the highway, maintenance of water levels through mid-summer to allow most larvae to complete metamorphosis, and excavation of sumps in the lake bed to entrap larvae and keep them from being swept down the lake drain.","monitoringMethods":"See Alvarez (2004) for information on use of an artificial egg laying substrate to detect the presence of this species.","managementProgramContacts":null,"monitoringProgramContacts":null,"managementResearchPrograms":null,"managementResearchNeeds":null,"biologicalResearchNeeds":null,"additionalTopics":null},"occurrenceViabilities":[{"eoRankSpecsDetailId":105938,"eoRankSpecsGroupName":null,"locationUseClass":{"id":1,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Not applicable","locationUseClassDescEs":"No se aplica","locationUseClassDescFr":"Sans objet","displayOrder":1},"excellentViability":null,"goodViability":null,"fairViability":null,"poorViability":null,"viabilityJustification":"Use the Generic Guidelines for the Application of Occurrence Ranks (2008).<br>The Key for Ranking Species Occurrences Using the Generic Approach provides a step-wise process for implementing this method.","versionDate":null,"versionAuthor":null,"versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2020-05-14T02:26:47.463229Z"}],"references":[{"id":447587,"citation":"Alvarez, J. A. 2004a. Use of artificial egg laying substrate to detect California tiger salamanders (<i>Ambystoma californiense</i>). Herpetological Review 35:45-46.","shortCitationAuthor":"Alvarez","shortCitationYear":2004,"referenceCode":"A04ALV01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:22:41.485268Z"},{"id":460437,"citation":"Alvarez, J. A. 2004b. Overwintering California tiger salamander (<i>Ambystoma californiense</i>) larvae. Herpetological Review 35:344.","shortCitationAuthor":"Alvarez","shortCitationYear":2004,"referenceCode":"A04ALV02NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:22:41.485268Z"},{"id":156829,"citation":"Austin, C. C. and H. B. Shaffer 1992. Short, medium, and long-term repeatability of locomotor performance in the tiger salamander, <i>Ambystoma californiens</i>e. Functional Ecology 6(2):145-153.","shortCitationAuthor":"Austin and Shaffer","shortCitationYear":1992,"referenceCode":"A92AUS02NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:22:41.485268Z"},{"id":156085,"citation":"Barry, S. J., and H. B. Shaffer. 1994. The status of the California tiger salamander (AMBYSTOMA CALIFORNIENSE) at Lagunita: a 50-year update. Journal of Herpetology 28:159-164.","shortCitationAuthor":"Barry and Shaffer","shortCitationYear":1994,"referenceCode":"A94BAR02NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:22:41.485268Z"},{"id":137372,"citation":"Behler, J. L., and F. W. King. 1979. The Audubon Society field guide to North American reptiles and amphibians. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. 719 pp.","shortCitationAuthor":"Behler and King","shortCitationYear":1979,"referenceCode":"B79BEH01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T14:38:24.173666Z"},{"id":112779,"citation":"Blackburn, L., P. Nanjappa, and M. J. Lannoo. 2001. An Atlas of the Distribution of U.S. Amphibians. Copyright, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, USA.","shortCitationAuthor":"Blackburn et al.","shortCitationYear":2001,"referenceCode":"B01BLA01EHUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T14:38:24.173666Z"},{"id":1153354,"citation":"Brehme, C. S., J. A. Tracy, B. A. I. Ewing, M. T. Hobbs, A. E. Launer, T. A. Matsuda, E. M. C. Adelsheim, and R. N. Fisher. 2021. Responses of migratory amphibians to barrier fencing inform the spacing of road underpasses: a case study with California tiger salamanders (<i>Ambystoma californiense</i>) in Stanford, CA, USA. Global Ecology and Conservation 31: e01857.","shortCitationAuthor":"Brehme et al.","shortCitationYear":2021,"referenceCode":"A21BRE02NAUS","lastModified":"2025-05-30T22:54:44.117895Z"},{"id":1149320,"citation":"California Natural Diversity Database (CNDDB). 2025. RareFind Version 5.3.0. California Department of Fish and Game, Sacramento.","shortCitationAuthor":"CNDDB","shortCitationYear":2025,"referenceCode":"N25CND01HQUS","lastModified":"2025-01-04T11:34:13.095441Z"},{"id":137880,"citation":"Collins, J. T. 1990. Standard common and current scientific names for North American amphibians and reptiles. 3rd ed. Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles. Herpetological Circular No. 19. 41 pp.","shortCitationAuthor":"Collins","shortCitationYear":1990,"referenceCode":"B90COL01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T14:38:15.579798Z"},{"id":1153346,"citation":"Cooper, R. D., and H. B. Shaffer. 2020. Allele-specific expression and gene regulation help explain transgressive thermal tolerance in non-native hybrids of the endangered California tiger salamander (<i>Ambystoma californiense</i>). Molecular Ecology 30(4): 987-1004.","shortCitationAuthor":"Cooper and Shaffer","shortCitationYear":2020,"referenceCode":"A20COO01NAUS","lastModified":"2025-05-30T22:54:44.170919Z"},{"id":943912,"citation":"Crother, B. I. (editor). 2017. Scientific and standard English names of amphibians and reptiles of North America north of Mexico, with comments regarding confidence in our understanding. 8th edition. SSAR Herpetological Circular 43:1-104. [Updates in SSAR North American Species Names Database at: https://ssarherps.org/cndb]","shortCitationAuthor":"Crother","shortCitationYear":2017,"referenceCode":"B17CRO01EHUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:11:53.413199Z"},{"id":156709,"citation":"Davidson, C., H. B. Shaffer, and M. R. Jennings. 2002. Spatial tests of the pesticide drift, habitat destruction, UV-B, and climate-change hypotheses for California amphibian declines. Conservation Biology 16:1588-1601.","shortCitationAuthor":"Davidson et al.","shortCitationYear":2002,"referenceCode":"A02DAV01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:12:45.726277Z"},{"id":1054360,"citation":"Frost, D.R. 2020. Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.0. American Museum of Natural History, New York, USA. 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