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and eastern part of range earlier this century; still susceptible to a number of threats, particularly environmental contaminants and excessive disturbance by humans; recent rangewide improvement in numbers and the protection offered by governments prevent it from being ranked any higher.","grankReviewDate":"2016-04-08","rankInfo":{"elementGlobalId":104470,"aooPercentGood":null,"enviromentalSpecificity":null,"intrinsicVulnerability":null,"longTermTrend":{"id":33,"longTermTrendDescEn":"Decline of <50% to Relatively Stable","longTermTrendDescEs":"Disminución de <50% a relativamente estable","longTermTrendDescFr":"Diminution de <50 % à relativement stable"},"numberEos":{"id":15,"numberEosDescEn":"> 300","numberEosDescEs":"> 300","numberEosDescFr":"> 300"},"numberGoodEos":null,"numberProtEos":{"id":14,"numberProtEosDescEn":"Many to very many (13 to >40) occurrences appropriately protected and managed","numberProtEosDescEs":"De varios a muchos casos (13 a >40) adecuadamente protegidos y controlados","numberProtEosDescFr":"De plusieurs à beaucoup d’occurrences (de 13 à >40) protégées et contrôlées convenablement"},"popSize":{"id":34,"popSizeDescEn":"100,000 - 1,000,000 individuals","popSizeDescEs":"De 100.000 a 1.000.000 de individuos","popSizeDescFr":"De 100 000 à 1 000 000 individus"},"rangeExtent":{"id":35,"rangeExtentDescEn":">2,500,000 square km (greater than 1,000,000 square miles)","rangeExtentDescEs":">2.500.000 kilómetros cuadrados (más ","rangeExtentDescFr":">2 500 000 km carrés (plus de 1 000 000 miles carrés)"},"shortTermTrend":{"id":41,"shortTermTrendDescEn":"Relatively Stable to increase of <25%","shortTermTrendDescEs":"Relativamente estable a un aumento de <25%.","shortTermTrendDescFr":"Relativement stable à augmentation de <25 %"},"threatImpactAssigned":{"id":8,"threatImpactAssignedDescEn":"Medium","threatImpactAssignedDescEs":"Medio","threatImpactAssignedDescFr":"Moyen"},"rangeExtentComments":"Breeding range extends from central Alaska, northern Yukon, northwestern and southern Mackenzie, northern Saskatchewan, northern Manitoba, central Ontario, central Quebec, Labrador, and Newfoundland south locally to the Commander and Aleutian Islands, southern Alaska, Baja California (both coasts), Sonora (Brown et al. 1988), New Mexico, Arizona, Texas Gulf Coast, and Florida (including the Keys); breeding is very localized in the Great Basin and prairie and plains regions in interior North America, where the the breeding range recently has expanded to include Nebraska and Kansas. In Arizona, nesting occurs primarily along the Salt and Verde rivers in the central part of the state; only a few pairs nest in the western part of the state (http://www.swbemc.org/nest_sites.html). In Nevada, the few nesting pairs are primarily in the west-central part of the state, with another nesting area in extreme southern Elko County (GBBO 2010). <br /><br />In the nonbreeding season, bald eagles occur generally throughout the breeding range except in the far north (AOU 1983, Sibley and Monroe 1990), most commonly from southern Alaska and southern Canada southward. The Chilkat Bald Eagle Preserve, Alaska, supports the largest wintering population anywhere (Ehrlich et al. 1992). Winter concentrations occur in British Columbia-northwestern Washington, along the Missouri and Mississippi rivers, and in northern Arkansas. One of the largest fall (mid-October to mid-December) migrant concentrations (200-300 birds at any one time, close to a thousand individuals through the season) occurs at Hauser Lake near Helena, Montana.","areaOfOccupancy":null,"areaOfOccupancyComments":null,"numberEosComments":"The total number of occupied territories (not equivalent to breeding area occurrences) in British Columbia and Alaska is probably at least 7,000 (Gerrard 1983); there are about 1,000 on Vancouver Island alone (British Columbia CDC 1993). Kjos (1992) estimated there were 3,014 occupied bald eagle territories in the lower 48 states.","popSizeComments":"Gerrard (1983) estimated that Alaska and British Columbia had approximately 48,000 bald eagles. Blood and Anweiler (1991) gave North American estimates of 70,000, with 21,000 in British Columbia. Alaska population is about 30,000, and perhaps almost that many occur in western Canada. Estimated number of breeding pairs in Canada in the early 1990s was 15,000-20,000 (Kirk et al. 1995). The reported number of nesting territories in the lower 48 states in 1990 was 3,014 (Kjos 1990). Population estimates (number of occupied territories) based on the 1990 breeding season survey were as follows: northern states, 1,165; Chesapeake Bay, 235; Pacific states, 861; southeastern states, 722; southwestern states, 27; total, 3,010 (USFWS 1990).  In 1992, there were 149 nesting pairs in New England. Rich et al. (2004) estimated the global population at 330,000.<br /><br />The winter count for 1992-1993 was about 400 in Maine, 70 in Massachusetts, 61 in Connecticut, 23 in New Hampshire, 12 in Vermont, and a few in Rhode Island (End. Sp. Tech. Bull. 18(2):20). Winter count in late 1980s yielded about 11,250 bald eagles in the lower 48 states.<br /><br />See Busch (1988) for information on status in the southwestern United States. About 100-150 bald eagles winter in Nevada; only a few pairs nest in the state (Nevada Department of Wildlife, GBBO 2010). See Brown et al. (1988) for status in Sonora, Mexico.","viabilityComments":null,"threatImpactComments":"Major threats include habitat loss, disturbance by humans, biocide contamination, decreasing food supply, and illegal shooting (Evans 1982, Green 1985, Herkert 1992). In 1992, many died in northern Utah after eating poisoned bait set out by ranchers. Breeding success still is being affected by environmental contaminants in the diet along Lake Superior in Wisconsin (Kozie and Anderson 1991). Bio-accumulated mercury from fish or exposure to other pesticides may interfere with reproduction or cause direct mortality (see GBBO 2010). Greatest potential threats in Florida include urban development and commercial timber harvest (Wood et al. 1989). The Chilkat Bald Eagle Preserve, Alaska, which supports the largest wintering population anywhere, was threatened by a proposed copper mine in the early 1990s (Ehrlich et al. 1992).  See Witmer and O'Neil (1990) for information on estimating cumulative impacts of multiple hydroelectric development and logging activities in Washington. See Montopoli and Anderson (1991) for a model used to evaluate the cumulative effects of selected forms of human disturbance in the Greater Yellowstone ecosystem.  As of the mid-1990s, the population in the southwestern United States continued to face threats and required intensive management to maintain current population levels (1994 End. Sp. Tech. Bull. 19(5):18).<br /><br />Generally susceptible to human intrusion, but \"show a high degree of adaptability and tolerance if the human activity is not directed toward them\" (Beebe 1974). However, chronic disturbance results in disuse of areas by eagles (Fraser 1985).<br /><br />In Arizona, mortality from shooting, entanglement in monofilament, and heat stress continue to affect population expansion (J. T. Driscoll, in Corman and Wise-Gervais 2005).","shortTermTrendComments":null,"longTermTrendComments":"As of early 1990s, populations in many areas had rebounded from the low levels that occurred before DDT use was banned in the U.S. The population increase in recent years has been accomplished through protection and active management, as well as through enhanced reproduction after the DDT ban. Populations have been increasing in the contiguous 48 states: the number of nesting territories nearly tripled between 1980 and 1990 (Kjos 1992). In the lower 48 states, breeding population has doubled every 6-7 years since the late 1970s (USFWS, Federal Register, 12 July 1994, p. 35585). In Alaska and British Columbia numbers have been generally stable at about 48,000 (Gerrard 1983, Campbell et al. 1990). Populations are stable and \"healthy\" in Alaska and western Canada. As of the early 1980s, most Canadian populations were reasonably stable, and problem populations in southwestern Ontario and the maritime provinces were showing signs of recovery (Brownell and Oldham, 1984 COSEWIC report). Overall, populations have increased in Canada in recent decades (Kirk et al. 1995, Hunter and Baird 1995). A significant increase was recorded in migration counts in northeastern North America, 1972-1987 (Titus and Fuller 1990). The breeding population in the Chesapeake Bay region increased 12.6% per year from 1986 to 1990; the mean minimum survival rate of all eagles was 91%; however, eagle habitat there is being converted to human development at a rapid rate (Buehler et al. 1991). In California in the late 1980s, the winter population was stable, and the breeding population was increasing in numbers and range (California DF&amp;G 1990). Bald eagle numbers in Arizona are now higher than ever recorded (due to intensive management), but nesting habitat is decreasing in the most productive areas, and some areas where eagles began to nest in the 1990s later were abandoned (J. T. Driscoll, in Corman and Wise-Gervais 2005).","inventoryNeeds":"The post-delisting [USESA] monitoring plan calls for monitoring at 5-year intervals for 20 years; this monitoring began in 2009.","numberProtEosComments":"Protected in the United States by the Bald Eagle Protection Act and the Migratory Bird Treaty Act.Protected in Canada by the Migratory Bird Treaty and the Wildlife Act. Protected in Mexico by the Migratory Bird Treaty. Many occurrences are protected in wildlife refuges, National, state, and Provincial parks, private nature reserves, and on some Nature Conservancy-owned property.","protectionNeeds":"Acquisition of breeding territories is always a priority and is necessary for further improvement. Acquisition of other types of protection of winter foraging habitats and winter roosts advisable.","otherConsiderations":null,"intrinsicVulnerabilityComments":null,"enviromentalSpecificityComments":null},"animalCharacteristics":{"elementGlobalId":104470,"majorHabitat":{"id":3,"majorHabitatDescEn":"Terrestrial","majorHabitatDescEs":"Terrestre","majorHabitatDescFr":"Terrestre"},"nonMigrant":true,"localMigrant":true,"longDistanceMigrant":true,"mobilityMigrationComments":"Most eagles that breed in Canada and the northern U.S. move south for winter. Migrates widely over most of North America (AOU 1983); moves generally E-SE across Canada and the Great Lakes region to the northeast coast of the U.S. In the northern Chesapeake Bay region, radio-tagged northern migrants arrived in late fall (mean date 21 December) and departed in early spring (mean date 27 March); radio-tagged southern migrants arrived throughout April-August and departed June-October (Buehler et al. 1991). See Palmer (1988) for fairly detailed review of seasonal movements in various regions.<br><br>Defended territories are relatively small; fourteen in Alaska varied from 11-45 hectares and averaged 23 ha (Hensel and Troyer 1964), and territory radius around active nests averaged 0.6 km in Minnesota  (Mahaffy and Frenzel 1987). Feeding home ranges surrounding active nests are undoubtedly much larger, depending on proximity to food sources and abundance of food. Minimum home range of breeding birds in Saskatchewan was 7 square kilometers (Gerrard et al. 1992); on the Columbia River, Oregon, breeding home ranges averaged 21.6 square kilometers (Garrett et al. 1993). <br><br>Winter home ranges can be very large, especially for nonbreeding birds. An immature wintered in Arizona over an area of >40,000 square kilometers and spent the summer in the Northwest Territories over a summer range of >55,000 square kilometers (Grubb et al. 1994). Maximum distance between feeding area and night roost site was less than 16 km in winter in Missouri (Griffin et al. 1982). In north-central Arizona, February-April home range of immatures averaged 400 square kilometers; birds moved frequently and roosted singly or in small groups (Grubb et al. 1989).","foodHabitsComments":"Feeds opportunistically on fishes, injured waterfowl and seabirds, various mammals, and carrion (Terres 1980). See Haywood and Ohmart (1986), Kralovec et al. (1992), Brown (1993), and Grubb (1995) for diet of inland breeding populations in Arizona, Colorado, and Wyoming. Hunts live prey, scavenges, and pirates food from other birds (e.g., osprey) and, in Alaska, sea otter (Watt et al. 1995, Condor 97:588-590). See Palmer (1988) for further information on hunting methods. In the Columbia River estuary, tidal flats and water less than 4 m deep were important foraging habitats (Watson et al. 1991). See Caton et al. (1992) for information on foraging perches used in Montana. Sheep carcasses were significant food sources in winter in Oregon (Marr et al. 1995, Wilson Bulletin 107:251-257).","animalPhenologyComments":"In the Columbia River estuary, foraging activity was most common at low tide and first daylight (Watson et al. 1991). In Arizona, foraging activity during the breeding season peaked at 0800-1000 and 1600-1900 MST (Grubb 1995).","colonialBreeder":false,"length":94,"width":null,"weight":5244,"animalPhenologies":[{"animalCagPhenologyId":102985,"animalPhenology":{"id":3,"animalPhenologyDescEn":"Diurnal","animalPhenologyDescEs":"Diurno","animalPhenologyDescFr":"Diurne","displayOrder":3},"adult":true,"immature":true},{"animalCagPhenologyId":102986,"animalPhenology":{"id":5,"animalPhenologyDescEn":"Crepuscular","animalPhenologyDescEs":"Crepuscular","animalPhenologyDescFr":"Crépusculaire","displayOrder":5},"adult":true,"immature":true}],"animalFoodHabits":[{"animalCagFoodHabitsId":105494,"foodHabits":{"id":1,"foodHabitsDescEn":"Carnivore","foodHabitsDescEs":"Carnívoro","foodHabitsDescFr":"Carnivore","displayOrder":1},"adult":true,"immature":true},{"animalCagFoodHabitsId":105495,"foodHabits":{"id":2,"foodHabitsDescEn":"Piscivore","foodHabitsDescEs":"Piscivore","foodHabitsDescFr":"Piscivore","displayOrder":2},"adult":true,"immature":true}]},"occurrenceDelineations":[{"eoSpecsDetailId":1468,"locationUseClass":{"id":2,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Breeding","locationUseClassDescEs":"En reproducción","locationUseClassDescFr":"Reproduction","displayOrder":2},"eoSpecGroupName":null,"subtypes":"Foraging area, Nest site","inferredExtentDistance":2.0,"inferredExtentNotes":"No information found on actual feeding home ranges, but this distance is presented as a minimum.","minimumEoCriteria":"Evidence of historical breeding, or current and likely recurring breeding, at a given location, minimally a reliable observation of one or more breeding pairs in appropriate habitat. Be cautious about creating EOs for observations that may represent single breeding events outside the normal breeding distribution. Occurrence includes not only the nest sites, but also the surrounding areas used for feeding during the nesting season.","mappingGuidance":"If feeding grounds are separated from nest site(s) by unsuitable habitat, they should be mapped as a separate polygon within the same occurrence.","separationBarriers":"None.","separationDistanceUnsuitableHabitatat":null,"separationDistanceSuitableHabitatat":null,"altSeparationProcedure":"Each nesting territory or nest is regarded as a separate occurrence.","separationJustification":"Thousands of raptor breeding occurrences, as circumscribed by heritage programs and conservation data centers, have been based on individual nests or territories. Accordingly, we have adopted this procedure as the standard for these species. Although in general we regard metapopulations and groups of ecogeographically associated territories as the most meaningful entities for conservation purposes on a range-wide scale, we believe that the costs of changing established occurrence delineation procedures for raptors outweigh the benefits. Also, given the mobility of these birds, any designation of a specific separation distance would not identify metapopulations in the usual sense of that concept.","versionDate":"2005-12-21","versionAuthor":"Hammerson, G., and S. Cannings","versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:22:42.047805Z"},{"eoSpecsDetailId":1469,"locationUseClass":{"id":3,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Nonbreeding","locationUseClassDescEs":"No reproducción","locationUseClassDescFr":"Non-reproduction","displayOrder":3},"eoSpecGroupName":null,"subtypes":"Feeding area, Roosting area","inferredExtentDistance":null,"inferredExtentNotes":null,"minimumEoCriteria":"Evidence of historic, and/or present recurring feeding or roosting concentrations in the non-breeding season;  minimally a reliable observation of 10 birds in appropriate habitat. Be cautious about creating EOs for observations that may represent single or very infrequent events.","mappingGuidance":null,"separationBarriers":"None.","separationDistanceUnsuitableHabitatat":10.0,"separationDistanceSuitableHabitatat":10.0,"altSeparationProcedure":null,"separationJustification":"Separation distance arbitrary. Wintering birds exhibit large movements from day to day and week to week, but feeding concentration areas are largely defined by the distribution of the high quality food resource (e.g. salmon) rather than the movements of the eagles.","versionDate":"2001-09-19","versionAuthor":"Cannings, S.","versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:22:42.047805Z"}],"plantCharacteristics":null,"elementManagement":{"elementGlobalId":104470,"eoManagementGroupName":null,"stewardshipOverview":"Conservation strategies in the Great Basin region include the following (GBBO 2010): protection and appropriate management of open water and lowland riparian habitat; in areas near known nest sites, several large trees (especially known nest trees) in proximity to large water bodies with large fish should be left intact; tree removal should be restricted or closely supervised in known winter roost areas; restrict human disturbances and pesticide use near nest sites; manage recreational use of lakes and reservoirs to prevent undue disturbance of nest sites and actively used foraging areas; monitor and, if necessary, manage human disturbance in proximity to winter roost sites. These may be applicable throughout most of the species' range.","impacts":null,"restorationPotential":null,"siteConservationPlansConsidered":null,"managementMethods":"Recovery has been assisted by intensive management that included systematic monitoring, enhanced protection, captive breeding, relocation of wild birds, and publicity (Matthews and Moseley 1990). <br><br>Knight and Knight (1984) recommended a 450 m buffer between a human in a canoe and a feeding eagle. For northern Chesapeake Bay, Buehler et al. (1991) recommended a 1360-m-wide shoreline management zone that extends 1400 m inland to encompass nonbreeding roost sites and provide a buffer from human disturbance. Another study recommended a 250-m buffer between a human on land and an eagle in a shoreline tree. A 500-m buffer around the nest may be adequate (see Fraser et al. 1985). In Michigan, 75% of all alert and flight responses to human activity occurred when activity was within 500 m and 200 m, respectively; vehicles and pedestrians elicited the highest response frequencies. Anthony and Isaacs (1989) made recommendations for Oregon: size of areas for nest-site management should be 50-250 ha, with size and shape depending on surrounding vegetation, topography, and eagle behavior; human activities within 800 m of nests should be restricted from 1 January to 31 August; clearcut logging, road building, hiking trails, and boat launch facilities should not be allowed within 400 m of nests. In Arizona, pedestrians were the most disturbing human activity; eagles were more often flushed from perches than from nests and were most easily disturbed when foraging; eagle response to disturbance frequencies were 64% at distances less than 216 m, 45% at 216-583 m, and 24% at distances greater than 583 m (Grubb and King 1991). Along northern Chesapeake Bay, flush distances because of approaching boats averaged 204 m in winter, 176 m in summer (Buehler et al. 1991, which see for further information on the effects of human activity). <br><br>In the Columbia River estuary, management of eagle foraging habitats should emphasize protection and enhancement of tidal flats (Watson et al. 1991). <br><br>See Busch (1988) for a discussion of management activities in the southwestern U.S., Lefranc and Glinski (1988) for management recommendations. <br><br>Supplemental feeding can be used in efforts to replace diminished supplies of natural foods, provide food free of environmental contaminants, provide essential nutrients, enhance survival of subadults, manipulate distribution of populations, increase nesting success, support released captive-bred birds, and/or afford opportunities for public viewing and education; potential disadvantages of supplemental feeding include prohibitive costs, the loss of natural and cautious behavior, dependence on these food supplies which may alter migration patterns, and increased potential for disease transmission (Knight and Anderson 1990). <br><br>See Grubb (1980) for information on construction and use of an artificial nest structure.","monitoringMethods":"See Fraser et al. (1983) for information on scheduling reproductive surveys. See Britten et al. 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Incubation lasts about 5 weeks, by both sexes. Second hatched young often dies. Young first fly at 10-12.5 weeks, cared for by adults and may remain around nest for several weeks after fledging. Generally first breeds at about 5-6 years. Adults may not lay every year.","ecologyComments":"Commonly roosts communally, especially in winter. See Curnutt (1992) for information on the dynamics of a year-round communal roost in southern Florida. <br><br>In Montana, the introduction of shrimp (MYSIS RELICTA) had a cascading effect through the food chain, ultimately causing displacement of bald eagles (Spencer et al. 1991).","habitatComments":"Breeding habitat most commonly includes areas close to (within 4 km) coastal areas, bays, rivers, lakes, reservoirs, or other bodies of water that reflect the general availability of primary food sources including fish, waterfowl, or seabirds (Andrew and Mosher 1982, Green 1985, Campbell et al. 1990). For example, in Saskatchewan lakes, bald eagle density was positively correlated with abundance of large fishes (Dzus and Gerrard 1993).<br><br>Nests usually are in tall trees or on pinnacles or cliffs near water. Tree species used for nesting vary regionally and may include pine, spruce, fir, cottonwood, poplar, willow, sycamore, oak, beech, or others. Ground nesting has been reported on the Aleutian Islands in Alaska, in Canada's Northwest Territories, and in Ohio, Michigan, and Texas. The same nest may be used year after year, or a pair may use alternate nest sites in successive years. See Livingston et al. (1990) for a model of nesting habitat in Maine. See Wood et al. (1989) for characteristics of nesting habitat in Florida (most nests were in live pine trees). In Oregon, most nests were within 1.6 km of water, usually in the largest tree in a stand (Anthony and Isaacs 1989). In Colorado and Wyoming, forest stands containing nest trees varied from old-growth ponderosa pine to narrow strips of riparian vegetation surrounded by rangeland (Kralovec et al. 1992). In Arizona, recent nests were on cliffs or pinnacles, or in large cottonwoods, willows, sycamores, or ponderosa pines, usually within 1 km of a riparian corridor (J. T. Driscoll, in Corman and Wise-Gervais 2005).<br><br>In winter, bald eagles may associate with waterfowl concentrations or congregate in areas with abundant dead fish (Griffin et al. 1982) or other food resources. Wintering areas are commonly associated with open water though in some regions (e.g., Great Basin) some bald eagles use habitats with little or no open water (e.g., montane areas) if upland food resources (e.g. rabbit or deer carrion, livestock afterbirths) are readily available (GBBO 2010). Wintering eagles tend to avoid areas with high levels of nearby human activity (boat traffic, pedestrians) and development (buildings) (Buehler et al. 1991). Bald eagles preferentially roost in conifers or other sheltered sites in winter in some areas; typically they select the larger, more accessible trees (Buehler et al. 1991, 1992). Perching in deciduous and coniferous trees is equally common in other areas (e.g., Bowerman et al. 1993). Communal roost sites used by two or more eagles are common, and some may be used by 100 or more eagles during periods of high use. Winter roost sites vary in their proximity to food resources (up to 33 km) and may be determined to some extent by a preference for a warmer microclimate at these sites. Available data indicate that energy conservation may or may not be an important factor in roost-site selection (Buehler et al. 1991). 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