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Hatching begins in May in south, usually early June in north. Young are tended by female; brood stays together until winter. Females first breed as yearlings.","ecologyComments":"Sexes usually form separate flocks in winter. In Massachusetts, predation exerted greatest influence on productivity; in Minnesota, winter conditions and resulting pre-breeding female condition were important factor in productivity (Vander Haegen et al. 1988). In southeastern Oklahoma, mean seasonal home range sizes for adult females were 225 ha (winter), 865 ha (spring), 780 ha (summer), and 459 ha (fall) (Bidwell et al. 1989). Home range in Montana was 260 to 520 hectares (Jonas 1966). In Colorado, adult males moved an average distance of 5.3 km from winter ranges to spring breeding areas; subadult males moved an average distance of 8.7 km; in spring males moved about 1000 m between morning and evening roosts used on the same day (Hoffman 1991). In north, deep snow restrict movements.","habitatComments":"Forest and open woodland, scrub oak, deciduous or mixed deciduous-coniferous areas, especially in mountainous regions (Subtropical and Temperate zones) (AOU 1983). Also agricultural areas in some regions, which may provide important food resources in winter (e.g., in Massachusetts, Vander Haegen et al. 1989). Roosts in trees at night. Severe winters and/or lack of winter habitat are important limiting factors in many northern areas. In a South Dakota ponderosa pine ecosystem, females with young selected mainly large meadows (Rumble and Anderson 1993). <br><br>Nests normally on the ground, usually in open areas at the edge of woods; rarely nests in trees (Fletcher, 1994, Wilson Bull. 106:562-563). In South Dakota, almost all nests initiated in April were in woodland communities whereas nests started after the first week of May were primarily in grassland communities; selected nest sites with concealing vegetation immediately above the nest; nests were placed in habitats associated with high interspersion; shrubs were strongly selected for as nesting cover in grassland; grassland nest sites had a high degree of visual obstruction immediately around the nest site (Day et al. 1991). Sites with good concealment also were selected in Arkansas (Badyaev 1995).","generalDescription":null,"diagnosticCharacteristics":null,"speciesMarineHabitats":[],"speciesTerrestrialHabitats":[{"cagTerrHabId":-110639,"terrestrialHabitat":{"id":1,"terrestrialHabitatDescEn":"Forest - Hardwood","terrestrialHabitatDescEs":"Bosque - Madera dura","terrestrialHabitatDescFr":"Forêt — Feuillu","displayOrder":2}},{"cagTerrHabId":-110640,"terrestrialHabitat":{"id":3,"terrestrialHabitatDescEn":"Forest - Mixed","terrestrialHabitatDescEs":"Bosque - Mixto","terrestrialHabitatDescFr":"Forêt — Mixte","displayOrder":4}},{"cagTerrHabId":-110641,"terrestrialHabitat":{"id":4,"terrestrialHabitatDescEn":"Woodland - Hardwood","terrestrialHabitatDescEs":"Lote de madera - Madera dura","terrestrialHabitatDescFr":"Terrain boisé — Feuillu","displayOrder":6}},{"cagTerrHabId":-110642,"terrestrialHabitat":{"id":6,"terrestrialHabitatDescEn":"Woodland - Mixed","terrestrialHabitatDescEs":"Lote de madera - Mixto","terrestrialHabitatDescFr":"Terrain boisé — Mixte","displayOrder":8}},{"cagTerrHabId":-110636,"terrestrialHabitat":{"id":7,"terrestrialHabitatDescEn":"Shrubland/chaparral","terrestrialHabitatDescEs":"Matorral/Chaparral","terrestrialHabitatDescFr":"Fruticée/Chaparral","displayOrder":9}},{"cagTerrHabId":-110637,"terrestrialHabitat":{"id":10,"terrestrialHabitatDescEn":"Old field","terrestrialHabitatDescEs":"Terreno baldío","terrestrialHabitatDescFr":"Friche","displayOrder":12}},{"cagTerrHabId":-110638,"terrestrialHabitat":{"id":19,"terrestrialHabitatDescEn":"Cropland/hedgerow","terrestrialHabitatDescEs":"Tierras cultivadas/cerco vivo","terrestrialHabitatDescFr":"Terre cultivée/haie","displayOrder":22}}],"speciesRiverineHabitats":[],"speciesPalustrineHabitats":[],"speciesLacustrineHabitats":[],"speciesSubterraneanHabitats":[],"speciesEstuarineHabitats":[]},"primaryReference":{"id":134424,"citation":"American Ornithologists' Union (AOU). 1998. Check-list of North American birds. Seventh edition. American Ornithologists' Union, Washington, D.C. [as modified by subsequent supplements and corrections published in <i>The Auk</i>]. Also available online: http://www.aou.org/.","shortCitationAuthor":"American Ornithologists' Union (AOU)","shortCitationYear":1998,"referenceCode":"B98AOU01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T14:38:12.673494Z"},"predecessors":[],"elementGlobalThreatAssessments":[]}