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Breeding range includes arctic tundras of the world. In Eurasia: northern Greenland, northern Scandinavia, and northern Russia; rarely to the British Isles and Iceland (Mikkola 1983, Cramp 1985, Potapov and Sale 2013, Holt et al. 2020). In North America: in the western Aleutians, Hall Island (Bering Sea), and from northern Alaska and Canadian Arctic Islands north to Ellesmere Island, south to coastal western Alaska, northern Yukon, northern mainland of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut, northeastern Manitoba, northern Quebec and northern Labrador (summarized in Holt et al. 2020).<br/><br/>When food is available, winters on breeding grounds as far north as 82N, or even moves out onto sea ice to hunt along open leads (Holt et al. 2020). Many individuals winter regularly in north-central North America, as far south as the northern Great Plains (Holt et al. 2020). Irregular winter irruptions move south, occasionally as far south as California, Louisiana, and South Carolina. In Eurasia, irruptions can occur as far south as Iceland, British Isles, northern continental Europe, central Russia, northern China, and Sakhalin (Cramp 1985, summarized in Holt et al. 2020).<br/><br/>Estimated global extent of occurrence is 1,000,000-10,000,000 square kilometers (BirdLife International 2005).","areaOfOccupancy":null,"areaOfOccupancyComments":null,"numberEosComments":"Difficult to define occurrences in this wide-ranging species that moves across its breeding range with changes in food availability.","popSizeComments":"Difficult to estimate rangewide population because individuals are apparently not evenly distributed across the range in any given year. Potapov and Sale (2013) estimated a global population of 28,000 mature individuals; however they suggested that it could be as small as 14,000 to 16,000. These numbers are much smaller than the 290,000 individuals estimated earlier by Rich et al. (2004). The Canadian population was estimated in early 1990s to be 20,000-60,000 mature individuals (Kirk et al. 1995). Generally uncommon to scarce (Holt et al. 1999).","viabilityComments":null,"threatImpactComments":"Climate change is a serious concern. Breeding success is dependent upon lemmings; Kerr and Packer (1998) predicted that the collared lemming (<i>Dicrostonyx groenlandicus</i>) will lose approximately 60 percent of its habitat in Canada due to climate warming. Snowy Owls hunt over pack ice and open leads (polynyas) in the winter, and the loss of sea ice as a result of warming may disperse their prey and impact their winter survival (Holt et al. 2020).<br/><br/>Indigenous harvest may affect local populations but probably does not have the potential for wide-scale impact (Parmelee 1992). Winter fox trapping can significantly impact Snowy Owls through bycatch, but estimates of 100,000 hunted annually in Siberia (Ellis and Smith 1993) need verification (Holt et al. 2020).<br/><br/>Natural enemies are few; arctic fox and wolf prey on adults; skuas and jaegers take eggs and chicks. Many apparently die from starvation during movement southward from the arctic, but collisions with automobiles, utility lines, airplanes, gunshot wounds, and entanglement in fishing tackle are responsible for the majority of reported fatalities (Kerlinger and Lein 1988 in Petersen and Holt 1999, Holt et al. 1999). Exposure also kills many nestlings (up to 3 or 4 chicks per clutch) (Karalus 1987).<br/><br/>Kirk (1995) reports no imminent obvious threats in Canada.","shortTermTrendComments":"Snowy Owl populations do fluctuate, so short-term trends must be analyzed with this in mind. However, Rosenberg et al. (2016) estimate a 64% decline in North American populations between 1970 and 2014, or 56% over the last 36 years (approximately three generations). Global population trends have not been quantified, but declines may be similar to those in North America (BirdLife International 2017).","longTermTrendComments":"See estimates above.","inventoryNeeds":"Information is needed on north Asian populations (Holt et al. 1999). Variable irruptive nomadic behavior may reduce power of surveys to discern long term population trends.","numberProtEosComments":"Protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act (between the U.S. and Canada, Mexico, Japan, and Russia) since 1972. Portions of breeding areas and wintering grounds are protected within national wildlife refuges and national parks in the United States and by national, provincial and territorial parks and sanctuaries in Canada.","protectionNeeds":null,"otherConsiderations":null,"intrinsicVulnerabilityComments":null,"enviromentalSpecificityComments":null},"animalCharacteristics":{"elementGlobalId":103975,"majorHabitat":{"id":3,"majorHabitatDescEn":"Terrestrial","majorHabitatDescEs":"Terrestre","majorHabitatDescFr":"Terrestre"},"nonMigrant":true,"localMigrant":true,"longDistanceMigrant":true,"mobilityMigrationComments":"Disperses from nesting areas after breeding; moves to areas where food availability permits overwintering. Regular migrant in northern Great Plains of United States and the Prairies of Canada. Some birds fly north in winter to open leads (polynyas) in Arctic seas, where they hunt seabirds. Others make large east-west movements, apparently in search of winter food in the north (Holt et al. 2020). Irruptive southward migrations in western and eastern North America are made up primarily of first-year birds (Holt et al. 2020), and are likely a consequence of good reproductive season in the north that results in a large population of migrants (Santonja et al. 2018). Arrives in northern Great Plains early November through late December or early January, departs late February and early March (some remain until late March) (Kerlinger and Lein 1988).","foodHabitsComments":"Diet predominantly lemmings and voles; important alternate prey includes other rodents, hares, birds (e.g., seabirds, sea ducks and other waterfowl, ptarmigan; Holt et al. 2020).","animalPhenologyComments":"During the arctic summer may hunt during the day and at 'night' (National Geographic Society 1983).","colonialBreeder":false,"length":58,"width":null,"weight":1963,"animalPhenologies":[{"animalCagPhenologyId":102765,"animalPhenology":{"id":3,"animalPhenologyDescEn":"Diurnal","animalPhenologyDescEs":"Diurno","animalPhenologyDescFr":"Diurne","displayOrder":3},"adult":true,"immature":true},{"animalCagPhenologyId":102766,"animalPhenology":{"id":4,"animalPhenologyDescEn":"Nocturnal","animalPhenologyDescEs":"Nocturno","animalPhenologyDescFr":"Nocturne","displayOrder":4},"adult":true,"immature":true}],"animalFoodHabits":[{"animalCagFoodHabitsId":105089,"foodHabits":{"id":1,"foodHabitsDescEn":"Carnivore","foodHabitsDescEs":"Carnívoro","foodHabitsDescFr":"Carnivore","displayOrder":1},"adult":true,"immature":true}]},"occurrenceDelineations":[{"eoSpecsDetailId":1124,"locationUseClass":{"id":2,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Breeding","locationUseClassDescEs":"En reproducción","locationUseClassDescFr":"Reproduction","displayOrder":2},"eoSpecGroupName":"Large Owls","subtypes":null,"inferredExtentDistance":1.5,"inferredExtentNotes":"Based on a conservatively small home range of just under 200 hectares (see Separation Justification).","minimumEoCriteria":"Evidence of historical breeding, or current and likely recurring breeding, at a given location, minimally a reliable observation of one or more breeding pairs in appropriate habitat. Be cautious about creating EOs for observations that may represent single breeding events outside the normal breeding distribution.","mappingGuidance":null,"separationBarriers":"None.","separationDistanceUnsuitableHabitatat":10.0,"separationDistanceSuitableHabitatat":10.0,"altSeparationProcedure":null,"separationJustification":"Separation distance based conservatively on larger home ranges (greater than 800 hectares). Home ranges generally well over 100 hectares, often over 500 hectares. Northern Hawk-Owl: average 372 hectares (Baekken et al. 1987). Great Horned Owl: average 483 hectares in Yukon (Rohner 1997), average about 106 hectares in Utah (Smith 1969). Barred Owl: average 273-971 hectares (Elody and Sloan 1985, Nicholls and Fuller 1987, Mazur et al. 1998). Great Gray Owl, varied from 239-400 hectares (Craighead and Craighead 1956, Winter 1982). Barn Owl: averages range from 198-921 hectares (Byrd 1982, Colvin 1984, Hegdal and Blaskiewicz 1984, Rosenburg 1986, Byrd and  Johnston 1991, Gubanyi 1989).","versionDate":"2001-11-02","versionAuthor":"Cannings, S.","versionNotes":"Contains all North American owls larger than Screech-Owls, except Spotted, Long-eared, and Short-eared Owls.","lastModified":"2020-04-30T02:07:28.959644Z"},{"eoSpecsDetailId":1125,"locationUseClass":{"id":3,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Nonbreeding","locationUseClassDescEs":"No reproducción","locationUseClassDescFr":"Non-reproduction","displayOrder":3},"eoSpecGroupName":"Large Owls","subtypes":null,"inferredExtentDistance":1.5,"inferredExtentNotes":"Based on a conservatively small home range of just under 200 hectares (see Separation Justification in Breeding Class).","minimumEoCriteria":"Evidence of recurring presence of wintering individuals outside their breeding area (including historical); and potential recurring presence at a given location. Occurrences should be locations where the species is resident for some time during the appropriate season; it is preferable to have observations documenting presence over at least 20 days annually. Be cautious about creating EOs for observations that may represent single events.","mappingGuidance":null,"separationBarriers":"None.","separationDistanceUnsuitableHabitatat":10.0,"separationDistanceSuitableHabitatat":10.0,"altSeparationProcedure":null,"separationJustification":"Separation distance based conservatively on larger home ranges (greater than 800 hectares; see Separation Justification in Breeding class).","versionDate":"2002-10-16","versionAuthor":"Cannings, S.","versionNotes":"Contains all North American owls larger than Screech-Owls, except Spotted, Long-eared, and Short-eared Owls.","lastModified":"2020-04-30T02:07:28.959644Z"},{"eoSpecsDetailId":156324,"locationUseClass":{"id":21,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Roost","locationUseClassDescEs":null,"locationUseClassDescFr":"Aire de repos","displayOrder":11},"eoSpecGroupName":"Large Owls","subtypes":null,"inferredExtentDistance":null,"inferredExtentNotes":null,"minimumEoCriteria":"Evidence of recurring, nonbreeding, communal roosting at a given location; reliable observation of multiple individuals roosting in a distinct habitat patch in multiple years. To avoid creating EOs for ephemeral situations, there should be evidence of communal roosting over at least two different (though not necessarily consecutive) nonbreeding seasons.","mappingGuidance":null,"separationBarriers":"None.","separationDistanceUnsuitableHabitatat":10.0,"separationDistanceSuitableHabitatat":10.0,"altSeparationProcedure":null,"separationJustification":"Separation distance is arbitrary. Pertinent biologically based separation criteria do not exist.","versionDate":"2012-10-25","versionAuthor":"Hammerson, G","versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2020-04-30T02:07:28.959644Z"}],"plantCharacteristics":null,"elementManagement":{"elementGlobalId":103975,"eoManagementGroupName":null,"stewardshipOverview":null,"impacts":null,"restorationPotential":null,"siteConservationPlansConsidered":null,"managementMethods":null,"monitoringMethods":null,"managementProgramContacts":null,"monitoringProgramContacts":null,"managementResearchPrograms":null,"managementResearchNeeds":null,"biologicalResearchNeeds":"Impact of harvest by Siberian hunters needs to be evaluated. Migration routes and timing of movements need study. Cooperation is needed between United States, Canadian, Russian and European biologists to estimate abundance, distribution and population trends (ADFG 2005). Lemming population dynamics relative to environmental/climate change warrant study. Changes in arctic habitats and winter sea ice conditions relative to Snowy Owl distribution along the Arctic Ocean should be studied.","additionalTopics":null},"occurrenceViabilities":[{"eoRankSpecsDetailId":105435,"eoRankSpecsGroupName":null,"locationUseClass":{"id":1,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Not applicable","locationUseClassDescEs":"No se aplica","locationUseClassDescFr":"Sans objet","displayOrder":1},"excellentViability":null,"goodViability":null,"fairViability":null,"poorViability":null,"viabilityJustification":"Use the Generic Guidelines for the Application of Occurrence Ranks (2008).<br>The Key for Ranking Species Occurrences Using the Generic Approach provides a step-wise process for implementing this method.","versionDate":null,"versionAuthor":null,"versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2020-05-14T02:25:25.120416Z"}],"references":[{"id":762932,"citation":"Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADFG). 2005. 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