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Check-list of North American birds. Seventh edition. American Ornithologists' Union, Washington, D.C. [as modified by subsequent supplements and corrections published in <i>The Auk</i>]. Also available online: http://www.aou.org/.","conceptName":"<i>Sterna sandvicensis</i>","taxonomicComments":"Formerly (AOU 1983, 1998) included in the genus <i>Sterna </i>but separated on the basis of genetic data that correspond to plumage patterns (Bridge et al. 2005).<br/><br/>Includes South American breeding form <i>S. eurygnatha</i>, usually regarded as a separate species (see Buckley and Buckley 1984).","roundedGRank":"G5","conservationStatusFactorsEditionDate":"2025-01-08","conservationStatusFactorsEditionAuthors":"Gundy, R. L. 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This species suffered large declines in the 1800s and 1900s, but populations are now increasing. Major threats include human disturbance during the nesting season, and habitat loss and degradation.","grank":"G5","rankInfo":{"elementGlobalId":103220,"aooPercentGood":null,"enviromentalSpecificity":{"id":5,"enviromentalSpecificityDescEn":"Narrow.  Specialist or community with key requirements common.","enviromentalSpecificityDescEs":"Estrecho.  Especialista o comunidad con requisitos claves comunes.","enviromentalSpecificityDescFr":"Étroit. Spécialistes ou communautés répondant aux critères clés sont répandues."},"intrinsicVulnerability":{"id":4,"intrinsicVulnerabilityDescEn":"Moderately vulnerable","intrinsicVulnerabilityDescEs":"Moderadamente vulnerable","intrinsicVulnerabilityDescFr":"Moyennement vulnérable"},"longTermTrend":{"id":32,"longTermTrendDescEn":"Decline of 10-50%","longTermTrendDescEs":"Disminución del 10 al 50%.","longTermTrendDescFr":"Diminution de 10 à 50 %"},"numberEos":{"id":15,"numberEosDescEn":"> 300","numberEosDescEs":"> 300","numberEosDescFr":"> 300"},"numberGoodEos":{"id":21,"numberGoodEosDescEn":"Very many (>125)","numberGoodEosDescEs":"Muchos (>125)","numberGoodEosDescFr":"Beaucoup (>125)"},"numberProtEos":{"id":15,"numberProtEosDescEn":"Very many (>40) occurrences appropriately protected and managed","numberProtEosDescEs":"Muchas ocurrencias (>40) protegidas y controladas adecuadamente","numberProtEosDescFr":"Beaucoup d’occurrences (>40) protégées et contrôlées convenablement"},"popSize":{"id":34,"popSizeDescEn":"100,000 - 1,000,000 individuals","popSizeDescEs":"De 100.000 a 1.000.000 de individuos","popSizeDescFr":"De 100 000 à 1 000 000 individus"},"rangeExtent":{"id":35,"rangeExtentDescEn":">2,500,000 square km (greater than 1,000,000 square miles)","rangeExtentDescEs":">2.500.000 kilómetros cuadrados (más ","rangeExtentDescFr":">2 500 000 km carrés (plus de 1 000 000 miles carrés)"},"shortTermTrend":{"id":43,"shortTermTrendDescEn":"Increase of 10-25%","shortTermTrendDescEs":"Aumenta del 10 al 25%.","shortTermTrendDescFr":"Augmentation de 10 à 25 %"},"threatImpactAssigned":{"id":8,"threatImpactAssignedDescEn":"Medium","threatImpactAssignedDescEs":"Medio","threatImpactAssignedDescFr":"Moyen"},"rangeExtentComments":"This species is made up of three subspecies. <i>T. s. sandvicensis</i> breeds from western Europe to the Caspian Sea: along the coastlines of Great Britain, France, Netherlands, Denmark, south coast of Norway, and East and West Germany; along the Mediterranean Sea in Spain, the Camargue of southern France, Sardinia, Sicily, Italy, and southeastern Tunisia; the islands of the Black Sea; and the eastern and southern coasts of the Caspian Sea (Shealer et al. 2020). <i>T. s. acuflavidus</i> breeds along the Atlantic Coast of the United States from Virginia southward, along the Gulf of Mexico from Florida to Texas, the Yucatán Peninsula of México, Belize, and scattered Caribbean islands (Shealer et al. 2020). <i>T. s. eurygnathus</i> is generally a non-migratory resident on islands of the southern Caribbean, and along the Atlantic Coast of South America as far south as northern Argentina (Shealer et al. 2020).<br/><br/><i>T. s. sandvicensis</i> spends the nonbreeding season along the southern Mediterranean Sea, southern Black Sea, eastern Caspian Sea, the west (Atlantic) coast of Africa, scattered parts of the east (Indian) coast, the Arabian Peninsula, and the Persian Gulf (Shealer et al. 2020). <i>T. s. acuflavidus</i> spends the nonbreeding season along the Atlantic Coast of Florida, throughout the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean, and south to South America in central Peru (Pacific Coast) and northern Argentina (Atlantic Coast) (Shealer et al. 2020). <i>T. s. eurygnathus</i> does not generally migrate outside the breeding range.","areaOfOccupancy":null,"areaOfOccupancyComments":null,"numberEosComments":"There are thousands of nesting sites throughout the range (Shealer et al. 2020).","popSizeComments":"Wetlands International estimates the global population to be 490,000–640,000 individuals (Shealer et al. 2020). The United States population is estimated to be 70,418-117,363 individuals (Rosenberg et al. 2019).","viabilityComments":"Most occurrences have good viability.","threatImpactComments":"Threats include human disturbance during the nesting season, habitat loss and degradation, hunting, egg harvesting, pollution, and incidental mortality (Shealer et al. 2020).","shortTermTrendComments":"eBird data indicates an increasing trend of 13.9% from 2012-2022 (Fink et al. 2023).","longTermTrendComments":"Major population declines from the 1800s to at least the 1970s were reported in the United States and northwestern Europe (Evans 1984, Shealer et al. 2020). The population began rebounding by the 1980s (Clapp and Buckley 1984, Spendelow and Patton 1988, Shealer et al. 2020).","inventoryNeeds":"Status survey for this species is needed, both inside and outside the U.S.","numberProtEosComments":"Many nesting sites are protected on conservation lands.","protectionNeeds":"Protection from hunting and egg harvesting needed in some countries and territories. Protection of nesting sites combined with public education generally increases public support and effectiveness of protection.","otherConsiderations":null,"intrinsicVulnerabilityComments":"Colonial nesting leaves adults, chicks, and eggs vulnerable to large losses from flooding and predation (Shealer et al. 2020).","enviromentalSpecificityComments":"Nesting sites have specific habitat requirements (Shealer et al. 2020)."},"animalCharacteristics":{"elementGlobalId":103220,"majorHabitat":{"id":3,"majorHabitatDescEn":"Terrestrial","majorHabitatDescEs":"Terrestre","majorHabitatDescFr":"Terrestre"},"nonMigrant":true,"localMigrant":true,"longDistanceMigrant":true,"mobilityMigrationComments":"U.S. breeders winter mainly in southern Central America and on Pacific coast of northwestern South America; breeders from the southeastern Caribbean and off French Guiana winter mostly over continental shelf waters off Venezuela and the Guianas (van Halewyn and Norton 1984). Migration along Costa Rican coast occurs September-early November and April-May (Stiles and Skutch 1989).","foodHabitsComments":"Eats small fishes, squids, shrimps, and pelagic worms caught by diving into water while flying (Terres 1980).","animalPhenologyComments":null,"colonialBreeder":true,"length":38,"width":null,"weight":208,"animalPhenologies":[{"animalCagPhenologyId":102300,"animalPhenology":{"id":3,"animalPhenologyDescEn":"Diurnal","animalPhenologyDescEs":"Diurno","animalPhenologyDescFr":"Diurne","displayOrder":3},"adult":true,"immature":true}],"animalFoodHabits":[{"animalCagFoodHabitsId":104306,"foodHabits":{"id":2,"foodHabitsDescEn":"Piscivore","foodHabitsDescEs":"Piscivore","foodHabitsDescFr":"Piscivore","displayOrder":2},"adult":true,"immature":true},{"animalCagFoodHabitsId":104307,"foodHabits":{"id":3,"foodHabitsDescEn":"Invertivore","foodHabitsDescEs":"Invertívoro","foodHabitsDescFr":"Invertivore","displayOrder":3},"adult":true,"immature":true}]},"occurrenceDelineations":[{"eoSpecsDetailId":1045,"locationUseClass":{"id":2,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Breeding","locationUseClassDescEs":"En reproducción","locationUseClassDescFr":"Reproduction","displayOrder":2},"eoSpecGroupName":"Colonial Seabirds","subtypes":"Breeding Colony, Foraging Area","inferredExtentDistance":2.0,"inferredExtentNotes":"Somewhat arbitrary, but generally very conservative for this group, many members of which travel long distances to foraging grounds.","minimumEoCriteria":"Evidence of historical breeding , or current and likely recurring breeding, at a given location, minimally a reliable observation of one or more breeding pairs in appropriate habitat. Be cautious about creating EOs for observations that may represent single breeding events outside the normal breeding distribution.","mappingGuidance":"Map foraging areas as separate polygons if they are separated from the breeding colony by areas simply flown over on commuting routes.","separationBarriers":"None.","separationDistanceUnsuitableHabitatat":5.0,"separationDistanceSuitableHabitatat":5.0,"altSeparationProcedure":"Where colonies are closer than 5 kilometers, separate occurrences may be created if research shows little genetic mixing between colonies.","separationJustification":"Occurrences include nesting and foraging areas, but occurrence separations are based on nesting areas (i.e., distance between nesting areas, regardless of foraging locations). Hence, different occurrences may overlap.<br><br>Occurrences are not based on discrete populations or metapopulations. Instead, the separation distance is arbitrarily small such that occurrences are of of practical size for data management purposes. <br><br>Evidence from a number of species of seabirds indicates that even though the 'home ranges' of individual nesting seabirds may be immense when foraging trips are taken into account, little movement or feeding overlap may occur between nearby colonies. For example, Thick-billed Murres may commute up to 170 kilometers one way on a feeding trip from the colony, but birds from a colony only 8 kilometers away may forage in a completely different direction; even birds from different sub-colonies only 1.5 kilometers apart mostly fed in completely separate areas (Gaston and Hipfner 2000).  <br><br>Most seabirds have strong breeding site fidelity; e.g., Thick-billed Murres (Gaston and Hipfner 2000, Gaston et al. 1994), Gray-backed Tern (Mostello et al. 2000), Red-footed Booby (Schreiber et al. 1996).","versionDate":"2004-10-20","versionAuthor":"Cannings, S., and G. Hammerson","versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2020-04-30T02:04:14.425472Z"},{"eoSpecsDetailId":1046,"locationUseClass":{"id":3,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Nonbreeding","locationUseClassDescEs":"No reproducción","locationUseClassDescFr":"Non-reproduction","displayOrder":3},"eoSpecGroupName":"Colonial Seabirds","subtypes":"Feeding area, Loafing site, Roosting site","inferredExtentDistance":null,"inferredExtentNotes":null,"minimumEoCriteria":"Evidence of recurring presence of flocks of nonbreeding birds (including historical), including nonbreeding birds within the breeding season and breeding individuals outside the breeding season; and potential recurring presence at a given location. Normally only areas where concentrations greater than 25 birds regularly occur for more than 20 days per year would be deemed EOs; the number of individuals may be reduced for very rare species. Be cautious about creating EOs for observations that may represent single events.","mappingGuidance":null,"separationBarriers":"None.","separationDistanceUnsuitableHabitatat":10.0,"separationDistanceSuitableHabitatat":10.0,"altSeparationProcedure":null,"separationJustification":"Separation distance arbitrary; defined this small to aid in conservation planning. Sites more than 10 kilometers apart may be joined as one occurrence if research shows that predominantly the same individuals are using both sites.","versionDate":"2001-03-07","versionAuthor":"Cannings, S.","versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2020-04-30T02:04:14.425472Z"}],"plantCharacteristics":null,"elementManagement":{"elementGlobalId":103220,"eoManagementGroupName":null,"stewardshipOverview":null,"impacts":null,"restorationPotential":null,"siteConservationPlansConsidered":null,"managementMethods":null,"monitoringMethods":null,"managementProgramContacts":null,"monitoringProgramContacts":null,"managementResearchPrograms":null,"managementResearchNeeds":null,"biologicalResearchNeeds":"Studies on threat impacts needed. Taxonomic studies needed to determine specific and subspecific status.","additionalTopics":null},"occurrenceViabilities":[{"eoRankSpecsDetailId":104707,"eoRankSpecsGroupName":null,"locationUseClass":{"id":1,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Not applicable","locationUseClassDescEs":"No se aplica","locationUseClassDescFr":"Sans objet","displayOrder":1},"excellentViability":null,"goodViability":null,"fairViability":null,"poorViability":null,"viabilityJustification":"Use the Generic Guidelines for the Application of Occurrence Ranks (2008).<br>The Key for Ranking Species Occurrences Using the Generic Approach provides a step-wise process for implementing this method.","versionDate":null,"versionAuthor":null,"versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2020-05-14T02:23:33.007168Z"}],"references":[{"id":153779,"citation":"American Ornithologists' Union (AOU). 1983. Check-list of North American Birds, 6th edition. 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BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK.","shortCitationAuthor":"BirdLife International","shortCitationYear":2004,"referenceCode":"N04BIR0100LA","lastModified":"2020-02-25T14:38:12.704742Z"},{"id":158427,"citation":"Braun, M. J., D. W. Finch, M. B. Robbins, and B. K. Schmidt. 2000.  A field checklist of the birds of Guyana.  Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.","shortCitationAuthor":"Braun et al.","shortCitationYear":2000,"referenceCode":"N00BRA0100LA","lastModified":"2020-02-25T14:38:18.84546Z"},{"id":507491,"citation":"Bridge, E. S., A. W. Jones, and A. J. Baker. 2005. A phylogenetic framework for the terns (Sternini) inferred from mtDNA sequences: implications for taxonomy and plumage evolution. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 35:459-469.","shortCitationAuthor":"Bridge et al.","shortCitationYear":2005,"referenceCode":"A05BRI01EHUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:15:30.08816Z"},{"id":107130,"citation":"Buckley, P. A., and F. G. Buckley. 1984. Seabirds of the north and middle Atlantic coast of the United States: their status and conservation. Pages 101-133 in Croxall et al., eds. Status and conservation of the world's seabirds. ICBP Tech. Pub. No. 2.","shortCitationAuthor":"Buckley and Buckley","shortCitationYear":1984,"referenceCode":"A84BUC01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:12:30.945016Z"},{"id":110054,"citation":"Byrd, M. A., and D. W. Johnston. 1991. Birds. Pages 477-537 in K. Terwilliger, coordinator. Virginia's endangered species: proceedings of a symposium. McDonald and Woodward Publ. Co., Blacksburg, Virginia.","shortCitationAuthor":"Byrd and Johnston","shortCitationYear":1991,"referenceCode":"A91BYR01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:13:19.836167Z"},{"id":106988,"citation":"Clapp, R. B., and P. A. Buckley. 1984. Status and conservation of seabirds in the southeastern United States. Pages 135-155 in Croxall et al., eds. Status and conservation of the world's seabirds. ICBP Tech. Pub. 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