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T. 1990. Standard common and current scientific names for North American amphibians and reptiles. 3rd ed. Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles. Herpetological Circular No. 19. 41 pp.","conceptName":"<i>Pituophis catenifer</i>","taxonomicComments":"Rodriguez-Robles and de Jesús-Escobar (2000) discovered significant internal structuring among <i>P. catenifer</i> populations using mitochondrial data, which may signify the existence of additional species, though they did not attempt reclassification. Pending further study, Crother (2017) retain the present subspecific designations for the group.<br/><br/>Using mitochondrial data, Rodríguez-Robles and de Jesús-Escobar (2000) corroborated the current classification of United States <i>Pituophis </i>into three species: <i>melanoleucus</i>, <i>catenifer</i>, and <i>ruthveni</i>. However, the recognition of <i>ruthveni </i>rendered <i>catenifer </i>paraphyletic, and <i>P. catenifer</i> and <i>P. melanoleucus</i> have geographic structure that does not correspond with currently recognized subspecies. Thus, given further study of this group, some species of <i>Pituophis </i>may undergo taxonomic revision in the near future (Crother 2017).","roundedGRank":"G5","conservationStatusFactorsEditionDate":"2010-01-28","conservationStatusFactorsEditionAuthors":"Hammerson, G.","primaryCommonNameLanguage":"EN","recordType":"SPECIES","elementNationals":[{"elementNationalId":167451,"classifConfidence":null,"nation":{"id":225,"nameEn":"United States","nameEs":"Estados Unidos","nameFr":"États-Unis","isoCode":"US","region":"United 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through almost all of western and central North America to northern Baja California (Grismer 2002) (or to southern Baja California if <i>P. vertebralis</i> is included in <i>P. catenifer</i>; Rodriguez-Robles and De Jesus-Escobar 2000), Sinaloa, and Zacatecas.","areaOfOccupancy":null,"areaOfOccupancyComments":null,"numberEosComments":"This species is represented by hundreds of occurrences or subpopulations (see map in Sweet and Parker 1990).","popSizeComments":"Total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000 and probably exceeds 1,000,000. This snake is relatively common in many areas.","viabilityComments":null,"threatImpactComments":"No major threats exist. Local declines have occurred in areas with extensive, intensive agricultural or urban development, but these snakes persist in semiagricultural landscapes and rural residential areas.","shortTermTrendComments":"Extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably are relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10 percent over 10 years or three generations.","longTermTrendComments":null,"inventoryNeeds":null,"numberProtEosComments":"Many occurrences are in protected areas.","protectionNeeds":null,"otherConsiderations":null,"intrinsicVulnerabilityComments":null,"enviromentalSpecificityComments":null},"animalCharacteristics":{"elementGlobalId":103070,"majorHabitat":{"id":3,"majorHabitatDescEn":"Terrestrial","majorHabitatDescEs":"Terrestre","majorHabitatDescFr":"Terrestre"},"nonMigrant":true,"localMigrant":true,"longDistanceMigrant":false,"mobilityMigrationComments":"In Utah, migrated an average of about 500 m between winter den and summer range (Parker and Brown 1980).<br /><br />Imler (1945) recaptured 11 snakes that had moved less than 100 m, but reported one snake moving 2.4 km. In Kansas, Fitch (1958) reported movements between captures of 94, 128, and 823 m. Radio-telemetered snakes in Kansas moved an average of 142 m in a day (Fitch and Shirer 1971). Home range was estimated at 1-2 ha in Utah (Parker and Brown 1980). <br /><br />In west-central California, four males had home ranges of 1.0-2.3 ha (mean 1.7 ha) (95% convex polygon); maximum range length was a few hundred meters (Rodriguez-Robles 2003).","foodHabitsComments":"Feeds primarily on small mammals; also eats birds and their eggs, lizards, small snakes and snake eggs, and insects; lizards and insects are more common in the diet of juveniles than in that of adults. Forages actively and locates prey either by olfaction or sight (Dyrkacz and Corn 1974, Chiszar et al. 1980). Often forages underground, but in some areas also commonly climbs trees to prey on nesting birds (e.g., Eichhorn and Koenig 1992). <br /><br />See Diller and Johnson (1988) for predation rate on small mammals in southwestern Idaho.","animalPhenologyComments":"Activity occurs from about April through October in the north, mostly March through November farther south(Nussbaum et al. 1983, Tennant 1984). In southwestern Idaho, seasonal activity peaked in late May and early June (Diller and Wallace 1996). Generally this snake is diurnal, but it may be active at night, largely fossorial, or exhibit bimodal morning and evening activity in hot weather.","colonialBreeder":false,"length":168,"width":null,"weight":null,"animalPhenologies":[{"animalCagPhenologyId":102203,"animalPhenology":{"id":1,"animalPhenologyDescEn":"Hibernates/aestivates","animalPhenologyDescEs":"Hibernación/Estivación","animalPhenologyDescFr":"Hiberne/estive","displayOrder":1},"adult":true,"immature":true},{"animalCagPhenologyId":102204,"animalPhenology":{"id":3,"animalPhenologyDescEn":"Diurnal","animalPhenologyDescEs":"Diurno","animalPhenologyDescFr":"Diurne","displayOrder":3},"adult":true,"immature":true}],"animalFoodHabits":[{"animalCagFoodHabitsId":104120,"foodHabits":{"id":1,"foodHabitsDescEn":"Carnivore","foodHabitsDescEs":"Carnívoro","foodHabitsDescFr":"Carnivore","displayOrder":1},"adult":true,"immature":true}]},"occurrenceDelineations":[{"eoSpecsDetailId":1142,"locationUseClass":{"id":1,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Not applicable","locationUseClassDescEs":"No se aplica","locationUseClassDescFr":"Sans objet","displayOrder":1},"eoSpecGroupName":"Medium And Large Colubrid Snakes","subtypes":null,"inferredExtentDistance":0.5,"inferredExtentNotes":null,"minimumEoCriteria":"Occurrences are based on evidence of historical presence, or current and likely recurring presence, at a given location. Such evidence minimally includes collection or reliable observation and documentation of one or more individuals (including eggs) in or near appropriate habitat where the species is presumed to be established and  breeding.","mappingGuidance":null,"separationBarriers":"Busy highway or highway with obstructions such that snakes rarely if ever cross successfully; major river, lake, pond, or deep marsh (this barrier pertains only to upland species and does not apply to aquatic or wetland snakes); densely urbanized area dominated by buildings and pavement.","separationDistanceUnsuitableHabitatat":1.0,"separationDistanceSuitableHabitatat":10.0,"altSeparationProcedure":null,"separationJustification":"Available information on movements of colubrid snakes is limited to a small minority of species. These data indicate that nearly all species have home ranges smaller or much smaller than 25 ha (e.g., less than 3 ha, <i>Pituophis catenifer</i> in California, Rodriguez-Robles 2003), with some up to about 75 ha (<i>Heterodon platirhinos</i>, average 50 ha, Plummer and Mills 2000), and the largest up to 225 ha in the biggest colubrids (<i>Drymarchon</i>, summer mean 50-100 ha, USFWS 1998). <br><br>Radiotelemetry data for <i>Pantherophis </i>indicate that residents of hibernacula that are 1-2 km apart (with suitable intervening habitat) probably interbreed (Prior et al. 1997, Blouin-Demers and Weatherhead 2002). However, \"evidence of genetic structure even over short distances (e.g., 2-20 km) implies that gene flow among rat snake populations can be easily disrupted\" (Prior et al. 1997). Loughheed et al. (1999) found evidence of substantial genetic exchange among local hibernacula (< 6 km apart), but gene flow over distances of 10s of km appears to be substantially less. Based on extensive radio-tracking data, Blouin-Demers and Weatherhead (2002) found that home range size of <i>Pantherophis </i>averaged 18.5 ha and ranged up to 93 ha; based on the most mobile individuals, <i>Pantherophis </i>from hibernacula up to 8 km apart can come together for mating. <i>Pantherophis </i>and probably other colubrids exhibit high fidelity to hibernacula and shift even to nearby sites only rarely (Prior et al. 2001). <br><br>Many of the several studies that report small home ranges for colubrids did not employ methods (e.g., radio telemetry) suitable for detecting full annual or multi-annual home range size, dispersal, or other long-distance movements, so these may have yielded underestimates of home ranges or activity areas.  <br><br>At least some colubrids, including medium-sized species such as garter snakes, not uncommonly move between areas up to a few kilometers apart, and several species make extensive movements of up to several kilometers, so separation distances of 1-2 km for suitable habitat are too small for medium-sized and large colubrids.<br><br>A separation distance of 10 km for suitable habitat was selected as most appropriate for snakes assigned to this Specs Group because it seems generally unlikely that two locations separated by less than 10 km of suitable habitat would represent distinct occurrences.<br><br>For the purposes of these occurrence specifications, upland habitat is regarded as unsuitable habitat for aquatic and wetland snakes. For upland snakes, shallow or patchy wetlands are treated as unsuitable habitat whereas large deepwater habitats (subjective determination) are barriers.","versionDate":"2013-02-12","versionAuthor":"Hammerson, G.","versionNotes":"Separation distance for suitable habitat was changed from 5 km to 10 km based on comments from Dale Jackson (12 Feb 2013).","lastModified":"2020-04-30T02:04:05.987846Z"}],"plantCharacteristics":null,"elementManagement":{"elementGlobalId":103070,"eoManagementGroupName":null,"stewardshipOverview":null,"impacts":null,"restorationPotential":null,"siteConservationPlansConsidered":null,"managementMethods":null,"monitoringMethods":null,"managementProgramContacts":null,"monitoringProgramContacts":null,"managementResearchPrograms":null,"managementResearchNeeds":null,"biologicalResearchNeeds":null,"additionalTopics":null},"occurrenceViabilities":[{"eoRankSpecsDetailId":104561,"eoRankSpecsGroupName":null,"locationUseClass":{"id":1,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Not applicable","locationUseClassDescEs":"No se aplica","locationUseClassDescFr":"Sans objet","displayOrder":1},"excellentViability":null,"goodViability":null,"fairViability":null,"poorViability":null,"viabilityJustification":"Use the Generic Guidelines for the Application of Occurrence Ranks (2008).<br>The Key for Ranking Species Occurrences Using the Generic Approach provides a step-wise process for implementing this method.","versionDate":null,"versionAuthor":null,"versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2020-05-14T02:23:08.381821Z"}],"references":[{"id":137372,"citation":"Behler, J. 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Online with updates at: http://www.ssarherps.org/pages/comm_names/Index.php","shortCitationAuthor":"Crother","shortCitationYear":2008,"referenceCode":"B08CRO01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T14:38:20.142383Z"},{"id":722484,"citation":"Crother, B. I. (editor). 2012. Scientific and standard English names of amphibians and reptiles of North America north of Mexico, with comments regarding confidence in our understanding. 7th edition. SSAR Herpetological Circular 39:1-92.","shortCitationAuthor":"Crother","shortCitationYear":2012,"referenceCode":"B12CRO01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:11:51.08501Z"},{"id":943912,"citation":"Crother, B. I. (editor). 2017. Scientific and standard English names of amphibians and reptiles of North America north of Mexico, with comments regarding confidence in our understanding. 8th edition. SSAR Herpetological Circular 43:1-104. 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The distribution of <i>Pituophis melanoleucus</i> and <i>P. vertebralis</i> in northern Baja California, Mexico. Herpetological Review 28:68-70.","shortCitationAuthor":"Grismer","shortCitationYear":1997,"referenceCode":"A97GRI01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:19:13.513406Z"},{"id":103984,"citation":"Grismer, L. L. 2001. Comments on the taxonomy of gopher snakes from Baja California. Mexico: a rely to Rodriguez-Robles and de Jesus-Escobar. Herpetological Review 32:81-82.","shortCitationAuthor":"Grismer","shortCitationYear":2001,"referenceCode":"A01GRI01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:19:13.513406Z"},{"id":124269,"citation":"Knight, J. L. 1986. Variation in snout morphology in the North American snake <i>Pituophis melanoleucus</i> (Serpentes: Colubridae). J. Herpetol. 20:77-79.","shortCitationAuthor":"Knight","shortCitationYear":1986,"referenceCode":"A86KNI01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:18:06.231171Z"},{"id":129828,"citation":"Nussbaum, R.A., E.D. Brodie, Jr., and R.M. 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Eggs are laid as early as June in some areas or as late as August in other regions (Ernst and Barbour 1989). Clutch size is 2-24. Generally individual females produce one clutch per year. Incubation typically takes 50-100 days, with 70-75 days most common (Parker and Brown 1980, Ernst and Barbour 1989). In many areas, hatchlings emerge in August and September. In Utah, males reach sexually maturity in 1-2 years, females in 3-5 years (Parker and Brown 1980). Females appear to have an annual breeding cycle (Fitch 1970, Diller and Wallace 1996).","ecologyComments":"Population density was estimated at 0.3-1.3/ha in Utah and Idaho (Parker and Brown 1980, Nussbaum 1983).<br /><br />This snake is remarkably variable in its behavior. Some individuals lie motionless when approached, remaining passive even when handled. Others respond to approach by coiling and striking (often lunging forward and grunting with each strike), hissing loudly, and vibrating the tail. The jaws may be spread, giving the head the triangular shape typical of rattlesnakes. In dry vegetation the vibrating tail may produce a sound resembling that made by a rattlesnakes rattle. Some individuals produce a rattling hiss that closely resembles the sound of a rattlesnakes rattle. Source: Hammerson (1999).","habitatComments":"This species occurs in a wide range of habitats, extending from lowlands to mountains: desert, prairie, shrubland, woodland, open coniferous forest, farmland, and marshes. Midwestern populations inhabit prairies; western and Mexican populations range from coastal grasslands and forests through deserts into montane forests (Sweet and Parker 1990). This snake is terrestrial, fossorial, and arboreal. It remains underground in cold weather and during the hot midday period in summer; it may occupy mammal burrows (Schroder 1950, Fitch 1958) or dig its own burrow, aided by the pointed snout and enlarged rostral scale. Carpenter (1982) estimated that burrowing <i>Pituophis </i>could move up to 3,400 cubic cm of soil in an hour. Eggs are deposited in burrows excavated by females in loose soil, in spaces beneath large rocks or logs, or possibly in small mammal burrows.","generalDescription":"Dorsum yellowish or cream with numerous dark blotches; usually a dark stripe across the head between the eyes and from each eye to the angle of the jaw; belly usually cream or yellowish with dark spots; dorsal scales keeled; anal scale single; usually four prefrontal scales; vertical keel at opening of windpipe; maximum total length around 280 cm but rarely more than 180 cm.<br /><br />","diagnosticCharacteristics":"Differs from other similar species by having the following combination of characteristics: keeled scales, 4 prefrontals, and an undivided anal. Rat snakes (ELAPHE) and kingsnakes (LAMPROPELTIS), have only two prefrontal scales. Also, ELAPHE has a divided anal plate. Whipsnakes (MASTICOPHIS), racers (COLUBER), and indigo snakes (DRYMARCHON) have smooth body scales.","speciesMarineHabitats":[],"speciesTerrestrialHabitats":[{"cagTerrHabId":-108857,"terrestrialHabitat":{"id":4,"terrestrialHabitatDescEn":"Woodland - Hardwood","terrestrialHabitatDescEs":"Lote de madera - Madera dura","terrestrialHabitatDescFr":"Terrain boisé — Feuillu","displayOrder":6}},{"cagTerrHabId":-108858,"terrestrialHabitat":{"id":5,"terrestrialHabitatDescEn":"Woodland - Conifer","terrestrialHabitatDescEs":"Lote de madera - Conífera","terrestrialHabitatDescFr":"Terrain boisé — Résineux","displayOrder":7}},{"cagTerrHabId":-108859,"terrestrialHabitat":{"id":6,"terrestrialHabitatDescEn":"Woodland - Mixed","terrestrialHabitatDescEs":"Lote de madera - Mixto","terrestrialHabitatDescFr":"Terrain boisé — Mixte","displayOrder":8}},{"cagTerrHabId":-108849,"terrestrialHabitat":{"id":7,"terrestrialHabitatDescEn":"Shrubland/chaparral","terrestrialHabitatDescEs":"Matorral/Chaparral","terrestrialHabitatDescFr":"Fruticée/Chaparral","displayOrder":9}},{"cagTerrHabId":-108850,"terrestrialHabitat":{"id":8,"terrestrialHabitatDescEn":"Savanna","terrestrialHabitatDescEs":"Sabana","terrestrialHabitatDescFr":"Savane","displayOrder":10}},{"cagTerrHabId":-108851,"terrestrialHabitat":{"id":9,"terrestrialHabitatDescEn":"Grassland/herbaceous","terrestrialHabitatDescEs":"Pastizales/cobertura herbácea","terrestrialHabitatDescFr":"Prairie/couverture herbacée","displayOrder":11}},{"cagTerrHabId":-108852,"terrestrialHabitat":{"id":10,"terrestrialHabitatDescEn":"Old field","terrestrialHabitatDescEs":"Terreno baldío","terrestrialHabitatDescFr":"Friche","displayOrder":12}},{"cagTerrHabId":-108853,"terrestrialHabitat":{"id":11,"terrestrialHabitatDescEn":"Desert","terrestrialHabitatDescEs":"Desierto","terrestrialHabitatDescFr":"Désert","displayOrder":13}},{"cagTerrHabId":-108854,"terrestrialHabitat":{"id":17,"terrestrialHabitatDescEn":"Bare rock/talus/scree","terrestrialHabitatDescEs":"Roca viva/pendiente de roca/piedras sueltas","terrestrialHabitatDescFr":"Éboulis","displayOrder":20}},{"cagTerrHabId":-108855,"terrestrialHabitat":{"id":19,"terrestrialHabitatDescEn":"Cropland/hedgerow","terrestrialHabitatDescEs":"Tierras cultivadas/cerco vivo","terrestrialHabitatDescFr":"Terre cultivée/haie","displayOrder":22}},{"cagTerrHabId":-108856,"terrestrialHabitat":{"id":20,"terrestrialHabitatDescEn":"Suburban/orchard","terrestrialHabitatDescEs":"Suburbano/ huertos","terrestrialHabitatDescFr":"Banlieusard/verger","displayOrder":23}}],"speciesRiverineHabitats":[],"speciesPalustrineHabitats":[{"cagPalusHabId":-102461,"palustrineHabitat":{"id":2,"palustrineHabitatDescEn":"HERBACEOUS WETLAND","palustrineHabitatDescEs":"HUMEDAL HERBÁCEO","palustrineHabitatDescFr":"TERRE HUMIDE HERBACÉE","displayOrder":2}},{"cagPalusHabId":-102462,"palustrineHabitat":{"id":3,"palustrineHabitatDescEn":"SCRUB-SHRUB WETLAND","palustrineHabitatDescEs":"HUMEDAL DE MATORRALES","palustrineHabitatDescFr":"FRUTICÉE HUMIDE","displayOrder":3}},{"cagPalusHabId":-102463,"palustrineHabitat":{"id":6,"palustrineHabitatDescEn":"Riparian","palustrineHabitatDescEs":"Ribereño","palustrineHabitatDescFr":"Riverain","displayOrder":6}}],"speciesLacustrineHabitats":[],"speciesSubterraneanHabitats":[],"speciesEstuarineHabitats":[]},"primaryReference":{"id":943912,"citation":"Crother, B. I. (editor). 2017. Scientific and standard English names of amphibians and reptiles of North America north of Mexico, with comments regarding confidence in our understanding. 8th edition. SSAR Herpetological Circular 43:1-104. [Updates in SSAR North American Species Names Database at: https://ssarherps.org/cndb]","shortCitationAuthor":"Crother","shortCitationYear":2017,"referenceCode":"B17CRO01EHUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:11:53.413199Z"},"predecessors":[],"elementGlobalThreatAssessments":[]}