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Check-list of North American birds. Seventh edition. American Ornithologists' Union, Washington, D.C. [as modified by subsequent supplements and corrections published in <i>The Auk</i>]. 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self-sustaining population nests in Canada, winters primarily along the Texas coast; two additional reintroduced populations (one migrates Wisconsin-Florida, one nonmigratory in Florida); historically much more widespread; total wild population in 2006 was 338; with about 135 in captive flocks; numbers increasing; problems include habitat degradation, low productivity associated with drought, and mortality from collisions with powerlines along lengthy migratory route.","grank":"G1","rankInfo":{"elementGlobalId":102973,"aooPercentGood":null,"enviromentalSpecificity":null,"intrinsicVulnerability":null,"longTermTrend":{"id":1,"longTermTrendDescEn":"Decline of >90%","longTermTrendDescEs":"Disminución de >90%.","longTermTrendDescFr":"Diminution de >90 %"},"numberEos":{"id":1,"numberEosDescEn":"1 - 5","numberEosDescEs":"De 1 a 5","numberEosDescFr":"De 1 à 5"},"numberGoodEos":{"id":7,"numberGoodEosDescEn":"Very few (1-3)","numberGoodEosDescEs":"Muy pocos (de 1 a 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Current distribution includes just three populations: (1) the Aransas-Wood Buffalo National Park Population that nests in Wood Buffalo National Park and adjacent areas in Canada (south-central Mackenzie and adjacent northern Alberta) and winters in coastal marshes in Texas, with significant migration stopovers in southern Saskatchewan, Nebraska, Kansas, and Oklahoma; (2) a reintroduced non-migratory Florida Population that occurs in central Florida; and (3) a reintroduced Eastern Migratory Population that migrates between Wisconsin (Necedah National Wildlife Refuge) and Florida (Chassahowitzka NWR) (CWS and USFWS 2007).<br/><br/>Extent of occurrence (breeding) appears to be less than 5,000 square kilometers.","areaOfOccupancy":null,"areaOfOccupancyComments":null,"numberEosComments":"Three populations currently exist (see Range Extent comments).","popSizeComments":"The total wild population in February 2006 was estimated at 338. Fewer than 250 are mature in the only self-sustaining population; for example, in 2005, 58 of the 72 known adult pairs in the Canadian population nested (Brian Johns, CWS, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The February 2006 population included: 215 individuals in the only self-sustaining Aransas-Wood Buffalo National Park Population that nests in Wood Buffalo National Park and adjacent areas in Canada and winters in coastal marshes in Texas; 59 captive-raised individuals released in an effort to establish a non-migratory Florida Population in central Florida; and 64 individuals introduced between 2001 and 2005 that migrate between Wisconsin and Florida in an eastern migratory population. The last remaining wild bird in the reintroduced Rocky Mountain Population died in the spring, 2002. The captive population contained 135 birds in February, 2006, with annual production from the Calgary Zoo, International Crane Foundation, Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Species Survival Center, and the San Antonio Zoo. The total population of wild and captive whooping cranes in February, 2006, was 473.","viabilityComments":"One population has good viability. The Aransas-Wood Buffalo National Park Population is self-sustaining; the Florida Population has begun to nest successfully but is not yet self-sustaining; the Eastern Migratory Population (Wisconsin-Florida) has exhibited appropriate breeding behavior, including pair formation, territory defense, nest building, and fertile egg production. However, recruitment has been lower than what is needed for a self-sustaining population due to high chick mortality (Thompson et al. 2025).","threatImpactComments":"Historically, population declines were caused by shooting and destruction of nesting habitat in the prairies from agricultural development. The species was listed as endangered because of low population numbers, slow reproductive potential (sexual maturity is delayed and pairs average less than 1 chick annually), cyclic nesting and wintering habitat suitability, a hazardous 4,000 km migration route that is traversed twice annually, and many human pressures on the wintering grounds. Current threats to wild cranes include collisions with manmade objects such as power lines and fences, accidental shooting, predators (especially predation of flightless chicks), disease (avian tuberculosis has been documented in the Aransas-Wood Buffalo population, and both West Nile virus and H5N1 avian influenza virus are emerging new threats of unknown proportion to both captive and wild populations), habitat destruction and contamination, severe weather, and a loss of two-thirds of the original genetic material. Threats to the captive flock include disease, accidents, and limited genetic material. [Source: CWS and USFWS 2007]","shortTermTrendComments":"Wild population increased from a few dozen to a few hundred over the past three generations (generation time = 13 years; Gil de Weir 2006).","longTermTrendComments":"Historically, population size may have been as high as 10,000 (see CWS and USFWS 2007). A low point came in the mid-1900s when there were fewer than 50 whooping cranes in North America prior to 1968, with an all-time low of 21 as recently as 1954 (CWS and USFWS 2007). With management the total wild population is now a few hundred. Annual growth of the population during the past 65 years has averaged 4.5% per year (CWS and USFWS 2007).","inventoryNeeds":null,"numberProtEosComments":"Virtually all significant occurrences are in national wildlife refuges, national parks, or declared critical habitats for this species.","protectionNeeds":"Most occurrences already are protected. Could extend winter refuge boundaries in Aransas N.W.R. to include Mustard Lake.","otherConsiderations":"High mortality during vulnerable migratory period.","intrinsicVulnerabilityComments":null,"enviromentalSpecificityComments":null},"animalCharacteristics":{"elementGlobalId":102973,"majorHabitat":{"id":3,"majorHabitatDescEn":"Terrestrial","majorHabitatDescEs":"Terrestre","majorHabitatDescFr":"Terrestre"},"nonMigrant":true,"localMigrant":false,"longDistanceMigrant":true,"mobilityMigrationComments":"Now migrates mainly through Great Plains from southern Canada and Dakotas south to Texas (arrives around mid-October). Introduced individuals migrate from Idaho (also Utah, Montana, and Wyoming) south primarily to central New Mexico (this population is headed for extirpation). Pairs or family groups begin northward migration early to mid-April. An 85,000 sq km area in Saskatchewan appears to serve as a premigratory staging area in fall, but there are no critical, traditional wetlands used elsewhere by migrants (Howe 1989). Spring migrants use Platte Valley during northward migration. See Howe (1989) for information on migration between Texas and Saskatchewan (distribution patterns of radio-tracked individuals differed greatly from distributions derived from opportunistic sightings). See also Johnsgard (1991) for details on spring and fall migration. <br /><br />An attempt to establish a nonmigratory population in Florida was underway in the early 1990s.","foodHabitsComments":"During summer, feeds on insects, crustaceans, and berries; winter diet includes grains, acorns, wolfberry fruit, insects, crustaceans (e.g., blue crab, crayfish), mollusks (e.g., the clam <i>Tagellus plebius</i> and the snail <i>Melampus coffeus</i>), fishes, amphibians, reptiles, marine worms (USFWS 1980, Hunt and Slack 1989). Blue crabs obtained from flooded tidal flats and sloughs dominate diet in Texas until January; then cranes move to shallow bays and channels to eat clams and an occasional crab (Matthews and Moseley 1990). Radio-marked migrants fed primarily in a variety of croplands (Howe 1989). Probes in mud or sand in or near shallow water, takes prey from water column, or picks items from substrate (Ehrlich et al. 1992).","animalPhenologyComments":null,"colonialBreeder":false,"length":132,"width":null,"weight":5826,"animalPhenologies":[{"animalCagPhenologyId":102147,"animalPhenology":{"id":3,"animalPhenologyDescEn":"Diurnal","animalPhenologyDescEs":"Diurno","animalPhenologyDescFr":"Diurne","displayOrder":3},"adult":true,"immature":true}],"animalFoodHabits":[{"animalCagFoodHabitsId":103992,"foodHabits":{"id":1,"foodHabitsDescEn":"Carnivore","foodHabitsDescEs":"Carnívoro","foodHabitsDescFr":"Carnivore","displayOrder":1},"adult":true,"immature":true},{"animalCagFoodHabitsId":103993,"foodHabits":{"id":2,"foodHabitsDescEn":"Piscivore","foodHabitsDescEs":"Piscivore","foodHabitsDescFr":"Piscivore","displayOrder":2},"adult":true,"immature":true},{"animalCagFoodHabitsId":103994,"foodHabits":{"id":3,"foodHabitsDescEn":"Invertivore","foodHabitsDescEs":"Invertívoro","foodHabitsDescFr":"Invertivore","displayOrder":3},"adult":true,"immature":true},{"animalCagFoodHabitsId":103995,"foodHabits":{"id":5,"foodHabitsDescEn":"Granivore","foodHabitsDescEs":"Granívoro","foodHabitsDescFr":"Granivore","displayOrder":5},"adult":true,"immature":true},{"animalCagFoodHabitsId":103996,"foodHabits":{"id":6,"foodHabitsDescEn":"Frugivore","foodHabitsDescEs":"Frugívoro","foodHabitsDescFr":"Frugivore","displayOrder":6},"adult":true,"immature":true}]},"occurrenceDelineations":[{"eoSpecsDetailId":1459,"locationUseClass":{"id":2,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Breeding","locationUseClassDescEs":"En reproducción","locationUseClassDescFr":"Reproduction","displayOrder":2},"eoSpecGroupName":null,"subtypes":null,"inferredExtentDistance":2.0,"inferredExtentNotes":"Based on a small home range of 3 square kilometers (Kuyt 1993).","minimumEoCriteria":"Evidence of breeding (including historical); and potential recurring breeding at a given location, minimally a reliable observation of one or more breeding pairs in appropriate habitat. Be cautious about creating EOs for observations that may represent single breeding events outside the normal breeding distribution.","mappingGuidance":null,"separationBarriers":"None.","separationDistanceUnsuitableHabitatat":15.0,"separationDistanceSuitableHabitatat":15.0,"altSeparationProcedure":null,"separationJustification":"Based on a home range of 19 square kilometers; breeding home ranges vary from 3 to 19 square kilometers (Kuyt 1993).","versionDate":"2001-10-09","versionAuthor":"Cannings, S. 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Be cautious about creating EOs for observations that may represent single events.","mappingGuidance":null,"separationBarriers":"None.","separationDistanceUnsuitableHabitatat":10.0,"separationDistanceSuitableHabitatat":10.0,"altSeparationProcedure":null,"separationJustification":"Arbitrary distance; occurrences defined primarily on the basis of areas supporting concentrations of roosting or foraging birds, rather than on the basis of distinct populations.","versionDate":"2002-04-17","versionAuthor":"Cannings, S.","versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:18:58.966614Z"}],"plantCharacteristics":null,"elementManagement":{"elementGlobalId":102973,"eoManagementGroupName":null,"stewardshipOverview":"The wild whooping crane population is characterized by low numbers, slow reproductive potential, and limited genetic diversity. A stochastic, catastrophic event could eliminate the wild, self-sustaining Aransas-Wood Buffalo population (AWBP). Therefore, the recovery strategy involves: protection and enhancement of the breeding, migration, and wintering habitat for the AWBP to allow the wild flock to grow and reach ecological and genetic stability; reintroduction and establishment of self-sustaining wild flocks within the species' historic range and that are geographically separate from the AWBP to ensure resilience to catastrophic events; and maintenance of a captive breeding flock to protect against extinction. Offspring from the captive breeding population will be released into the wild to establish these populations. Production by released birds and their offspring will ultimately result in selfsustaining wild populations. The continued growth of the AWBP, establishment of additional populations, and maintenance of the captive flock will also address the loss of genetic diversity. [Source: CWS and USFWS 2007]","impacts":null,"restorationPotential":"See Recovery Plan (CWS and USFWS 2007).","siteConservationPlansConsidered":null,"managementMethods":"See Recovery Plan (CWS and USFWS 2007).","monitoringMethods":null,"managementProgramContacts":"See Recovery Plan (CWS and USFWS 2007).","monitoringProgramContacts":null,"managementResearchPrograms":null,"managementResearchNeeds":null,"biologicalResearchNeeds":null,"additionalTopics":null},"occurrenceViabilities":[{"eoRankSpecsDetailId":104466,"eoRankSpecsGroupName":null,"locationUseClass":{"id":1,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Not applicable","locationUseClassDescEs":"No se aplica","locationUseClassDescFr":"Sans objet","displayOrder":1},"excellentViability":null,"goodViability":null,"fairViability":null,"poorViability":null,"viabilityJustification":"Use the Generic Guidelines for the Application of Occurrence Ranks (2008).<br>The Key for Ranking Species Occurrences Using the Generic Approach provides a step-wise process for implementing this method.","versionDate":null,"versionAuthor":null,"versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2020-05-14T02:22:53.084669Z"}],"references":[{"id":131593,"citation":"Allen, R.P. 1952. 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Auk 102:658-660.","shortCitationAuthor":"Boyce and Miller","shortCitationYear":1984,"referenceCode":"A85BOY01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:18:58.982112Z"},{"id":140241,"citation":"Campbell, L. 1995. Endangered and Threatened Animals of Texas: Their Life History and Management. Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, Endangered Resources Branch, Austin, Texas. ix + 129 pp.","shortCitationAuthor":"Campbell","shortCitationYear":1995,"referenceCode":"B95CAM01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:11:58.350566Z"},{"id":630212,"citation":"Canadian Wildlife Service and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (CWS and USFWS). 2007. International recovery plan for the whooping crane. Ottawa: Recovery of Nationally Endangered Wildlife (RENEW), and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Albuquerque, New Mexico. 162 pp.","shortCitationAuthor":"CWS and USFWS","shortCitationYear":2007,"referenceCode":"N07CWS01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:18:58.966614Z"},{"id":109846,"citation":"Collar, N. J., L. P. Gonzaga, N. Krabbe, A. Madroño-Nieto, L. G. Naranjo, T. A. Parker III, and D. C. Wege. 1992. Threatened Birds of the Americas. The ICBP/IUCN Red Data Book. 3rd edition, Part 2. International Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge, UK.","shortCitationAuthor":"Collar et al.","shortCitationYear":1992,"referenceCode":"B92COL01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:13:00.273402Z"},{"id":114012,"citation":"Dennis, B., P. L. Munholland, and J. M. Scott. 1991. Estimation of growth and extinction parameters for endangered species. Ecological Monographs 61:115-143.","shortCitationAuthor":"Dennis et al.","shortCitationYear":1991,"referenceCode":"A91DEN02NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:14:02.680616Z"},{"id":104556,"citation":"Doughty, R. W. 1989. Return of the whooping crane. Univ. Texas Press, Austin. 182 pp.","shortCitationAuthor":"Doughty","shortCitationYear":1989,"referenceCode":"B89DOU01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:18:58.966614Z"},{"id":123055,"citation":"Ehrlich, P. R., D. S. Dobkin, and D. Wheye. 1992. Birds in Jeopardy: the Imperiled and Extinct Birds of the United States and Canada, Including Hawaii and Puerto Rico. Stanford University Press, Stanford, California. 259 pp.","shortCitationAuthor":"Ehrlich et al.","shortCitationYear":1992,"referenceCode":"B92EHR01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:12:01.459982Z"},{"id":630214,"citation":"Gil de Weir, K. 2006. Whooping crane (<i>Grus americana</i>) demography and environmental factors in a population growth simulation model.  Ph.D. dissertation, Texas A & M Univeristy.","shortCitationAuthor":"Gil de Weir","shortCitationYear":2006,"referenceCode":"U06GIL01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:18:58.966614Z"},{"id":100210,"citation":"Harrison, C. 1978. A Field Guide to the Nests, Eggs and Nestlings of North American Birds. Collins, Cleveland, Ohio.","shortCitationAuthor":"Harrison","shortCitationYear":1978,"referenceCode":"B78HAR01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T14:38:12.657866Z"},{"id":155592,"citation":"Howell, S. N. G., and S. Webb. 1995.  A guide to the birds of Mexico and northern Central America. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.","shortCitationAuthor":"Howell and Webb","shortCitationYear":1995,"referenceCode":"B95HOW01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T14:38:14.376662Z"},{"id":133932,"citation":"Howe, M. A. 1989. Migration of radio-marked whooping cranes from the Aransas-Wood Buffalo population: patterns of habitta use, behavior, and survival. U.S. Fish Wildlife Service, Fish and Wildlife Technical Report 21. 33 pp.","shortCitationAuthor":"Howe","shortCitationYear":1989,"referenceCode":"B89HOW01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:18:58.966614Z"},{"id":110919,"citation":"Hunt, H. E., and R. D. Slack. 1989. Winter diets of whooping and sandhill cranes in south Texas. J. 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Selected vertebrate endangered species of the seacoast of the United States--the whooping crane. FWS/OBS-80/01.3, Slidell.","shortCitationAuthor":"USFWS","shortCitationYear":1980,"referenceCode":"A80FIS11NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:18:58.966614Z"},{"id":143776,"citation":"U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 1990. 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Although never common, its population dipped to only 14 adult birds early in the last century, at which point the species was at the brink of extinction. Conservation efforts in Canada and the U.S. not only rescued the remnant population from extinction, but later resulted in population increases. To help ensure persistence of the species, efforts to establish wild flocks of captive-bred individuals outside Canada have been underway for several decades. Nevertheless, Canada's breeding population is still very small and is confined to a limited breeding area and only one wintering location. This situation exposes it to catastrophic natural events (e.g. droughts, hurricanes) and a variety of ongoing anthropogenic threats (e.g. loss and degradation of coastal wetland habitats on the wintering grounds, oil spills in coastal areas, and collisions with power lines and structures during migration). Last, because of delayed sexual maturity and a naturally low annual reproductive output, the population of this species has an inherently weak capacity to rebound from pressures that reduce survivorship or reproductive success.<br/><br/>Status history: Designated Endangered in April 1978. Status re-examined and confirmed in November 2000 and in April 2010.","usesaDate":"1967-03-11","interpretedUsesa":null,"usesaComments":"In 2024, USFWS initiated a 5-year status review.<br/><br/>The FWS is currently monitoring the following populations of the Whooping Crane as of Feb. 2012:<br/><br/>Listing status: Endangered<br/>Population location: Entire, except where listed as an experimental population<br/><br/>Listing status: Experimental Population, Non-Essential<br/>Population location: U.S.A. (CO, ID, FL, NM, UT, and the western half of Wyoming)<br/><br/>Listing status: Experimental Population, Non-Essential<br/>Population location: U.S.A (Southwestern Louisiana)<br/><br/>Listing status: Experimental Population, Non-Essential<br/>Population location: U.S.A.(AL, AR, GA, IL, IN, IA, KY, LA, MI, MN, MS, MO, NC, OH, SC, TN, VA, WI, WV)","completeDistribution":true,"synonyms":[],"infraspeciesList":[],"ebarId":null,"ebarCanadianScope":false,"ebarGlobalScope":false,"ebarKbaGroup":"Birds","caGeneralStatusId":"GS001107"},"speciesCharacteristics":{"elementGlobalId":102973,"reproductionComments":"Breeding begins in early May. Pair mates for life. Both sexes, in turn, incubate 2, sometimes 1-3, eggs for 33-34 days. Nestlings are precocial. Young are tended by both adults, fledge when no less than 10 weeks old (no earlier than mid-August), remain with parents until following year (dissociate after arrival on breeding grounds). Sexually mature at 4-6 years.","ecologyComments":"Population has exhibited 10-year periodicity (Boyce and Miller 1985, Dennis et al. 1991). <br /><br />Mated pairs and families establish and defend winter territories on coastal marshes in Texas. Breeding territories are very large, averaging 770 ha (Johnsgard 1991). Home ranges of breeding pairs in Canada were about 3-19 sq km (Kuyt 1993).","habitatComments":"Nesting occurs in dense emergent vegetation (sedge, bulrush) in shallow (often slightly alkaline) ponds (Kuyt 1995), freshwater marshes, wet prairies, or along lake margins. Pothole breeding sites in Canada are separated by narrow ridges vegetated by black spruce, tamarack, and willow. The nest is a mound of marsh vegetation rising about 20-50 centimeters above the surrounding water level.<br /><br />Habitat during migration and winter includes marshes, shallow lakes, lagoons, salt flats, grain and stubble fields, and barrier islands (AOU 1983, Matthews and Moseley 1990). Radio-marked migrants roosted primarily in palustrine wetlands, many of which were smaller than 0.5 hectares (Howe 1989). Migration habitat includes mainly sites with good horizontal visibility, water depth of 30 centimeters or less, and minimum wetland size of 0.04 hectares for roosting (Armbruster 1990, which see for further details).","generalDescription":"A very tall, mainly white bird with a long neck, long legs, and red facial skin; black primaries are evident in flight; immatures are mainly white but have pale reddish-brown head and neck and similar color scattered elsewhere on the body.","diagnosticCharacteristics":"Differs from sandhill crane in being mainly white instead of gray. Differs from white ibis in being larger and having a straight bill rather than a decurved one. Differs from white herons and egrets in having black primaries and red facial skin. Differs from snow goose in having much longer legs and neck. 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