{"elementGlobalId":102244,"circumscripConfidence":{"id":1,"circumscripConfidenceDescEn":"1 - Strong","circumscripConfidenceDescEs":"1 - Fuerte","circumscripConfidenceDescFr":"1 – Forte"},"classificationLevel":{"id":7,"classificationLevelNameEn":"Species","classificationLevelNameEs":"Especies","classificationLevelNameFr":"Espèce"},"classificationStatus":{"id":1,"classificationStatusDescEn":"Standard","classificationStatusDescEs":"Estándar","classificationStatusDescFr":"Standard"},"iucn":{"id":4,"iucnDescEn":"Endangered","iucnDescEs":"En peligro de extinción","iucnDescFr":"En voie de disparition","iucnCode":"EN"},"nameCategory":{"id":1,"nameCategoryDescEn":"Vertebrate Animal","nameCategoryDescEs":"Animal vertebrado","nameCategoryDescFr":"Animal vertébré","nameTypeCd":"A","nameTypeDesc":"Zoological"},"rankMethodUsed":{"id":4,"rankMethodUsedDescEn":"Expertise without calculation","rankMethodUsedDescEs":null,"rankMethodUsedDescFr":null,"rankMethodUsedExternalDescEn":"Ranked by inspection","rankMethodUsedExternalDescEs":null,"rankMethodUsedExternalDescFr":null},"formattedScientificName":"<i>Enhydra lutris</i>","scientificName":"Enhydra lutris","scientificNameAuthor":"(Linnaeus, 1758)","primaryCommonName":"Sea Otter","relatedItisNames":"<i>Enhydra lutris</i> (Linnaeus, 1758) (TSN 180547)","uniqueId":"ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.102244","elcode":"AMAJF09010","conceptRefFullCitation":"Wilson, D. E., and D. M. Reeder (editors). 1993. Mammal species of the world: a taxonomic and geographic reference. Second edition. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC. xviii + 1206 pp. Available online at: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/msw/.","conceptName":"<i>Enhydra lutris</i>","taxonomicComments":"There has been some disagreement as to whether the recognition of subspecies is warranted. Three subspecies are currently recognized: <i>E. lutris lutris</i> from Asia to the Commander Islands, <i>E. l. nereis</i> in California, and <i>E. l. kenyoni</i> in Alaska (Wilson et al. 1991).","roundedGRank":"G4","conservationStatusFactorsEditionDate":"2005-03-08","conservationStatusFactorsEditionAuthors":"Hammerson, G.","primaryCommonNameLanguage":"EN","recordType":"SPECIES","elementNationals":[{"elementNationalId":164998,"classifConfidence":null,"nation":{"id":38,"nameEn":"Canada","nameEs":"Canadá","nameFr":"Canada","isoCode":"CA","region":"Canada"},"roundedNRank":"N3","elementSubnationals":[{"elementSubnationalId":343367,"subnation":{"id":61,"nameEn":"British Columbia","nameEs":"Columbia Británica","nameFr":"Colombie-Britannique","subnationCode":"BC","dnationId":38},"roundedSRank":"S3","dataSensitive":{"id":2,"dataSensitiveDescEn":"No","dataSensitiveDescEs":null,"dataSensitiveDescFr":null,"dataSensitiveCode":"N"},"dataSensitiveCategory":null,"srank":"S3S4","speciesSubnational":{"elementSubnationalId":343367,"hybrid":false,"exotic":false,"native":true}}],"nrankReviewYear":2025,"nrank":"N3N4","speciesNational":{"elementNationalId":164998,"exotic":false,"native":true}},{"elementNationalId":163775,"classifConfidence":null,"nation":{"id":225,"nameEn":"United States","nameEs":"Estados Unidos","nameFr":"États-Unis","isoCode":"US","region":"United States"},"roundedNRank":"N4","elementSubnationals":[{"elementSubnationalId":291988,"subnation":{"id":7,"nameEn":"California","nameEs":"California","nameFr":"Californie","subnationCode":"CA","dnationId":225},"roundedSRank":"SNR","dataSensitive":{"id":2,"dataSensitiveDescEn":"No","dataSensitiveDescEs":null,"dataSensitiveDescFr":null,"dataSensitiveCode":"N"},"dataSensitiveCategory":null,"srank":"SNR","speciesSubnational":{"elementSubnationalId":291988,"hybrid":false,"exotic":false,"native":true}},{"elementSubnationalId":400094,"subnation":{"id":1,"nameEn":"Alaska","nameEs":"Alaska","nameFr":"Alaska","subnationCode":"AK","dnationId":225},"roundedSRank":"S4","dataSensitive":{"id":2,"dataSensitiveDescEn":"No","dataSensitiveDescEs":null,"dataSensitiveDescFr":null,"dataSensitiveCode":"N"},"dataSensitiveCategory":null,"srank":"S4","speciesSubnational":{"elementSubnationalId":400094,"hybrid":false,"exotic":false,"native":true}},{"elementSubnationalId":402383,"subnation":{"id":56,"nameEn":"Washington","nameEs":"Washington","nameFr":"Washington","subnationCode":"WA","dnationId":225},"roundedSRank":"S2","dataSensitive":{"id":2,"dataSensitiveDescEn":"No","dataSensitiveDescEs":null,"dataSensitiveDescFr":null,"dataSensitiveCode":"N"},"dataSensitiveCategory":null,"srank":"S2","speciesSubnational":{"elementSubnationalId":402383,"hybrid":false,"exotic":false,"native":true}},{"elementSubnationalId":323598,"subnation":{"id":44,"nameEn":"Oregon","nameEs":"Oregón","nameFr":"Oregon","subnationCode":"OR","dnationId":225},"roundedSRank":"SH","dataSensitive":{"id":2,"dataSensitiveDescEn":"No","dataSensitiveDescEs":null,"dataSensitiveDescFr":null,"dataSensitiveCode":"N"},"dataSensitiveCategory":null,"srank":"SH","speciesSubnational":{"elementSubnationalId":323598,"hybrid":false,"exotic":false,"native":true}}],"nrankReviewYear":1996,"nrank":"N4","speciesNational":{"elementNationalId":163775,"exotic":false,"native":true}}],"lastModified":"2026-10-02T21:38:56.037805Z","lastPublished":"2026-10-02T21:32:08.892226Z","promotionalDescription":null,"conceptLineageSummary":null,"nsxUrl":"/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.102244/Enhydra_lutris","grankAdjustmentReasons":null,"grankChangeDate":"1996-11-18","grankReviewDate":"2016-04-04","grankReasons":"Large range in North Pacific; total population has increased to more than 100,000 (430 in Washington); subject to intensive management; vulnerable to oil spills and conflicts with commercial fisheries.","grank":"G4","rankInfo":{"elementGlobalId":102244,"aooPercentGood":null,"enviromentalSpecificity":null,"intrinsicVulnerability":null,"longTermTrend":null,"numberEos":{"id":14,"numberEosDescEn":"81 to >300","numberEosDescEs":"De 81 a >300","numberEosDescFr":"De 81 à >300"},"numberGoodEos":null,"numberProtEos":null,"popSize":{"id":33,"popSizeDescEn":"10,000 to >1,000,000 individuals","popSizeDescEs":"De 10.000 a >1.000.000 de individuos","popSizeDescFr":"De 10 000 à >1 000 000 individus"},"rangeExtent":{"id":31,"rangeExtentDescEn":"20,000-2,500,000 square km (about 8000-1,000,000 square miles)","rangeExtentDescEs":"De 20.000 a 2.500.000 kilómetros cuadrados (aproximadamente 8.000 a 1.000.000 de millas cuadradas)","rangeExtentDescFr":"De 20 000 à 2 500 000 km carrés (de 8 000 à 1 000 000 miles carrés approximativement)"},"shortTermTrend":{"id":44,"shortTermTrendDescEn":"Increase of >10%","shortTermTrendDescEs":"Aumento de >10%.","shortTermTrendDescFr":"Augmentation de >10 %"},"threatImpactAssigned":null,"rangeExtentComments":"Nearshore waters of the Northern Pacific Ocean. Subspecies <i>lutris</i>: northwestern Pacific, from the Kiritappu Peninsula of eastern Hokkaido Island (formerly) and Kurile Islands to Commander Islands. Subspecies <i>kenyoni</i>: Aleutian Islands, southern Alaska, British Columbia, and Washington; extirpated and later reintroduced in southeastern Alaska, British Columbia, and Washington; extirpated and unsuccessfully reintroduced in the Pribilof Islands and Oregon. Subspecies <i>nereis</i>: California coast, mainly from Santa Cruz to Pismo Beach; formerly south to Morro Hermoso, Baja California, and throughout the Channel Islands; recently reintroduced to San Nicolas Island; see Rodriguez-Jaramillo and Gendron (1996) for an occurrence off southern Baja California. See Gallo-Reynoso and Rathbun (1997) for a discussion of possible occurrences off Baja California.","areaOfOccupancy":null,"areaOfOccupancyComments":null,"numberEosComments":null,"popSizeComments":"Estimates from the mid- to late 1980s suggested populations of 6000-7000 in the Kuril Islands, 2000-2500 in the Commander Islands, and 2500-3000 off Kamchatka, giving a total western Pacific population of 10,500-12,500 (Riedman and Estes 1990, Reeves et al. 1992). In the 1980s, the total population from Prince William Sound to the Kuril Islands was about 150,000 (Riedman 1990). For the Aleutian Islands, the minimal population estimate was 8,742 sea otters in 2000 (Doroff et al. 2003).<br><br>Alaska had 100,000-150,000 in the mid- to late 1980s (Reeves et al. 1992), and the current population probably also is in this range (USFWS 1995 stock assessment). Prince William Sound population in late 1980s was about 14,000, of which an estimated 2800 were killed as a result of the Exxon Valdez oil spill (Raloff 1993). From an original 402 individuals translocated in the 1960s, the population in southeastern Alaska increased to more than 3500 in five populations by 1987 (Reeves et al. 1992); 1988 estimate was 4520 (See Riedman and Estes 1990).<br><br>In 1984, the population off west coast of Vancouver Island, British Columbia, was 345 (descended from 89 that were translocated from Alaska, 1969-1972) (MacAskie 1986); 1987 count was 380 (see Riedman and Estes 1990). In 1995, the minimum number along the coast of British Columbia was 1522, including 135 near Goose Island (Watson et al. 1997).<br><br>Otters were transplanted from Alaska to Washington in 1969 and 1970; population increased from 36 to 94 between 1981 and 1987 (Matthews and Moseley 1990); 211 were counted in Washington in July 1989 (Jameson, in Riedman and Estes 1990, Reeves et al. 1992).<br><br>See also record for subspecies <i>nereis</i> of California (about 2,505 individuals in 2003).","viabilityComments":null,"threatImpactComments":"In various parts of the range, conflicts with commercial fisheries (gill and trammel nets, crab traps) and activities associated with oil and gas exploration, development, and transportation may be the greatest threats. Commercial fisheries are not a threat in Alaska (USFWS 1995 stock assessment). Brody et al. (1996) determined that an oil spill of <i>Exxon Valdez</i> size, occurring at the Monterey Peninsula, California, would kill at least 50% of the total California sea otter population.<br><br>In the Aleutian Islands in recent decades, the population declined to a uniformly low density in the archipelago, suggesting a common and geographically widespread cause. These data are in general agreement with the hypothesis of increased predation on sea otters (Doroff et al. 2003). Killer whales presumably shifted their diet to include sea otters after populations of their preferred prey, harbor seals (<i>Phoca vitulina</i>) and Steller sea lions (<i>Eumetopias jubatus</i>), declined.<br>","shortTermTrendComments":"Washington population started with 59 individuals translocated from Alaska in 1969-1970; increasing--spring 1996 survey yielded 430 individuals (USFWS 1997 draft revised stock assessment).","longTermTrendComments":"In the Aleutian Islands, the number of sea otters counted decreased by 75% between 1965 and 2000; 88% for islands at equilibrial density in 1965. The population decline likely began in the mid-1980s and declined at a rate of 17.5% per year in the 1990s (Doroff et al. 2003). These data chronicle one of the most widespread and precipitous population declines for a mammalian carnivore in recorded history (Doroff et al. 2003).<br><br>","inventoryNeeds":null,"numberProtEosComments":null,"protectionNeeds":"See the 1996 Endangered Species Update 13(12) for 20 articles dealing with sea otter conservation and management.","otherConsiderations":null,"intrinsicVulnerabilityComments":null,"enviromentalSpecificityComments":null},"animalCharacteristics":{"elementGlobalId":102244,"majorHabitat":{"id":1,"majorHabitatDescEn":"Marine","majorHabitatDescEs":"Marino","majorHabitatDescFr":"Marine"},"nonMigrant":true,"localMigrant":true,"longDistanceMigrant":false,"mobilityMigrationComments":"Seasonal movements occur among some age-sex classes in certain areas (Riedman and Estes 1990).","foodHabitsComments":"Diet varies according to location; often dominated by benthic invertebrates. Sea urchins, crabs, and a variety of molluscs are principal foods, but fish are important food items at high population densities. Forages usually at depths of less than 20 m. Uses rocks or other hard objects as tools to break exoskeletons of invertebrate prey. Diets and patterns of foraging behavior may be highly individualized (Riedman and Estes 1990).","animalPhenologyComments":"Foraging occurs throughout the day and night, with periodic resting in between feeding bouts.","colonialBreeder":false,"length":150,"width":null,"weight":35000,"animalPhenologies":[{"animalCagPhenologyId":101762,"animalPhenology":{"id":2,"animalPhenologyDescEn":"Circadian","animalPhenologyDescEs":"Circadiano","animalPhenologyDescFr":"Circadien","displayOrder":2},"adult":true,"immature":true}],"animalFoodHabits":[{"animalCagFoodHabitsId":103280,"foodHabits":{"id":2,"foodHabitsDescEn":"Piscivore","foodHabitsDescEs":"Piscivore","foodHabitsDescFr":"Piscivore","displayOrder":2},"adult":true,"immature":true},{"animalCagFoodHabitsId":103281,"foodHabits":{"id":3,"foodHabitsDescEn":"Invertivore","foodHabitsDescEs":"Invertívoro","foodHabitsDescFr":"Invertivore","displayOrder":3},"adult":true,"immature":true}]},"occurrenceDelineations":[{"eoSpecsDetailId":1423,"locationUseClass":{"id":1,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Not applicable","locationUseClassDescEs":"No se aplica","locationUseClassDescFr":"Sans objet","displayOrder":1},"eoSpecGroupName":"Sea Otter","subtypes":null,"inferredExtentDistance":16.0,"inferredExtentNotes":"Based on annual movements of females (Riedman and Estes 1990).","minimumEoCriteria":"Evidence of historical presence, or current and likely recurring presence, at a given location. Such evidence minimally includes collection or reliable observation and documentation of one or more individuals in appropriate habitat where the species is presumed to be established and breeding.","mappingGuidance":null,"separationBarriers":"Upland areas.","separationDistanceUnsuitableHabitatat":50.0,"separationDistanceSuitableHabitatat":50.0,"altSeparationProcedure":"Where an occurrence is at least  twice the size of a minimum A-ranked occurrence,  it may be divided into two or more A-ranked occurrences along divisions that are narrower (or absent) than the separation distances given. The dividing lines should be made as much as possible through regions of limited Sea Otter use.","separationJustification":"Separation distance somewhat arbitrary; based on female, rather than more extensive male movements. Annual movements of males cover 50-100 kilometers; females move about 8-16 kilometers (Riedman and Estes 1991).","versionDate":"2001-08-16","versionAuthor":"Cannings, S.","versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2021-10-02T17:03:56.233776Z"}],"plantCharacteristics":null,"elementManagement":{"elementGlobalId":102244,"eoManagementGroupName":null,"stewardshipOverview":"See 1995 draft recovery plan for the California population.","impacts":null,"restorationPotential":"Recovery potential is high if environmental conditions are favorable. In Alaska, otters at the leading edge of an expanding population in an area with abundant food resources and protected water exhibited high adult survival rate, high reproductive rate, and high preweaning survival (Monson and DeGange 1995). Human harvest was the primary source of known mortality of adults.","siteConservationPlansConsidered":null,"managementMethods":"See the 1996 Endangered Species Update 13(12) for 20 articles dealing with sea otter conservation and management. <br><br>Brody et al. (1996) reviewed the EXXON VALDEZ oil spill and concluded that efforts to rehabilitate otters should be discontinued 20-30 days after a spill. <br><br>Draft revised recovery plan for California populations was available in February 2000 (contact U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Ventura, California).","monitoringMethods":"See the 1996 Endangered Species Update 13(12) for articles dealing with sea otter conservation and management, including monitoring.","managementProgramContacts":"In central California, halibut fishermen have been required to move to deeper waters to avoid entanglement of otters in nets. A \"no otter\" management zone has been established south of Point Conception, including Channel Islands except San Nicolas; theoretically otters will be kept out of these waters, which can then be fished commercially (Matthews and Moseley 1990). In the late 1980s, reintroduction was initiated at San Nicolas Island, California. Home range fidelity and postrelease dispersal are probably the principal barriers to successful reintroductions (Riedman and Estes 1990). <br><br>In Alaska, hunting by natives is regulated by the Alaska Sea Otter Commission (Reeves et al. 1992). See Raloff (1993) for information on the costly otter rehabilitation effort carried out after the Exxon Valdez oil spill.","monitoringProgramContacts":null,"managementResearchPrograms":null,"managementResearchNeeds":null,"biologicalResearchNeeds":null,"additionalTopics":null},"occurrenceViabilities":[{"eoRankSpecsDetailId":103764,"eoRankSpecsGroupName":null,"locationUseClass":{"id":1,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Not applicable","locationUseClassDescEs":"No se aplica","locationUseClassDescFr":"Sans objet","displayOrder":1},"excellentViability":null,"goodViability":null,"fairViability":null,"poorViability":null,"viabilityJustification":"Use the Generic Guidelines for the Application of Occurrence Ranks (2008).<br>The Key for Ranking Species Occurrences Using the Generic Approach provides a step-wise process for implementing this method.","versionDate":null,"versionAuthor":null,"versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2020-05-14T02:21:07.333089Z"}],"references":[{"id":1151804,"citation":"American Society of Mammalogists (ASM). 2025. Mammal Diversity Database (Version 1.13) [Data set]. Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10595931. Online. Available: https://www.mammaldiversity.org/","shortCitationAuthor":"American Society of Mammalogists (ASM)","shortCitationYear":2025,"referenceCode":"W25ASM01NAUS","lastModified":"2025-04-04T21:45:15.526109Z"},{"id":621465,"citation":"Bodkin, J. L. and K. W. Kenyon. 2003. Sea otter. Pages 735-? in G.A. Feldhamer, B.C. Thompson, and J.A. Chapman, (eds) Wild mammals of North America: biology, management, and conservation. 2nd Edition. Johns Hopkins University Press. ","shortCitationAuthor":"Bodkin and Kenyon","shortCitationYear":2003,"referenceCode":"A03BOD01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:15:44.33858Z"},{"id":622794,"citation":"Bodkin, J. L., B.E. Ballachey, T.A. Dean, A.K. Fukuyama, S.C. Jewett, L. McDonald, D.H. Monson, C.E. O'Clair, and G.R. VanBlaricom. 2002. Sea Otter population status and the process of recovery from the 1989 'Exxon Valdez' oil spill. Marine Ecology Progress Series 241: 237-253.","shortCitationAuthor":"Bodkin et al.","shortCitationYear":2002,"referenceCode":"A02BOD01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:17:14.574103Z"},{"id":131569,"citation":"Bodkin, J. L., D. Mulcahy, and C. J. Lensink. 1993. Age-specific reproduction in female sea otters (<i>Enhydra lutris</i>) from south-central Alaska: analysis of reproductive tracts. Can. J. Zool. 71:1811-1815.","shortCitationAuthor":"Bodkin et al.","shortCitationYear":1993,"referenceCode":"A93BOD01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:17:14.574103Z"},{"id":759420,"citation":"Bradley, R.D., L.K. Ammerman, R.J. Baker, L.C. Bradley, J.A. Cook. R.C. Dowler, C. Jones, D.J. Schmidly, F.B. Stangl Jr., R.A. Van den Bussche and B. Würsig. 2014. Revised checklist of North American mammals north of Mexico, 2014. Museum of Texas Tech University Occasional Papers 327:1-28. 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Vacca. 1989. Sea otter mortality at Kodiak Island, Alaska, during summer 1987. J. Mamm. 70:836-838.","shortCitationAuthor":"DeGrange and Vacca","shortCitationYear":1989,"referenceCode":"A89DEG01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:17:14.574103Z"},{"id":386984,"citation":"Doroff, A. M., J. A. Estes, M. T. Tinker, D. M. Burn, and T. J. Evans. 2003. Sea otter population declines in the Aleutian archipelago. Journal of Mammalogy 84:55-64.","shortCitationAuthor":"Doroff et al.","shortCitationYear":2003,"referenceCode":"A03DOR02NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:17:14.574103Z"},{"id":622782,"citation":"Endangered Species Update. December 1996. School of Natural Resources and Environment, University of Michigan.  Special Issue: Conservation and Management of the Southern Sea Otter. 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