{"elementGlobalId":102238,"circumscripConfidence":null,"classificationLevel":{"id":7,"classificationLevelNameEn":"Species","classificationLevelNameEs":"Especies","classificationLevelNameFr":"Espèce"},"classificationStatus":{"id":1,"classificationStatusDescEn":"Standard","classificationStatusDescEs":"Estándar","classificationStatusDescFr":"Standard"},"iucn":{"id":5,"iucnDescEn":"Vulnerable","iucnDescEs":"Vulnerable","iucnDescFr":"Vulnérable","iucnCode":"VU"},"nameCategory":{"id":1,"nameCategoryDescEn":"Vertebrate Animal","nameCategoryDescEs":"Animal vertebrado","nameCategoryDescFr":"Animal vertébré","nameTypeCd":"A","nameTypeDesc":"Zoological"},"rankMethodUsed":null,"formattedScientificName":"<i>Epinephelus itajara</i>","scientificName":"Epinephelus itajara","scientificNameAuthor":"(Lichtenstein, 1822)","primaryCommonName":"Goliath Grouper","relatedItisNames":"<i>Epinephelus itajara</i> (Lichtenstein, 1822) (TSN 167695)","uniqueId":"ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.102238","elcode":"AFCSX04100","conceptRefFullCitation":"Robins, C.R., R.M. Bailey, C.E. Bond, J.R. Brooker, E.A. Lachner, R.N. Lea, and W.B. Scott. 1991. Common and scientific names of fishes from the United States and Canada. American Fisheries Society, Special Publication 20. 183 pp.","conceptName":"<i>Epinephelus itajara</i>","taxonomicComments":"Also known as mero (Brazil), mero guasa (Colombia), cherne (Peru), guasa (Cuba, Venezuela), and (formerly) jewfish (U.S.). <br><br>Smith (1971): considered part of subgenus Promicrops, which was previously considered a genus. Appears to be related to Epinephelus lanceolatus and E. tauvina of the Indo-Pacific. The subgenus is demarcated by a broading and depressing of the head and body. No close relatives in American waters. <br><br>DNA data indicate that (1) American <i>Epinephelus</i> species are not monophyletic, (2) <i>Cephalopholis</i> is monophyletic only with the inclusion of the morphologically distinct <i>Paranthias</i>, and (3) <i>Mycteroperca</i> is monophyletic only with the inclusion of the Indo-Pacific <i>Anyperodon leucogrammicus</i> (Craig et al. 2001).","roundedGRank":"G3","conservationStatusFactorsEditionDate":"2014-11-12","conservationStatusFactorsEditionAuthors":"Jackson, D. R. (2014); Chiappone, M., and E. F. Schmitt (1998)","primaryCommonNameLanguage":"EN","recordType":"SPECIES","elementNationals":[{"elementNationalId":166271,"classifConfidence":null,"nation":{"id":225,"nameEn":"United States","nameEs":"Estados Unidos","nameFr":"États-Unis","isoCode":"US","region":"United States"},"roundedNRank":"NNR","elementSubnationals":[{"elementSubnationalId":1231230,"subnation":{"id":23,"nameEn":"Louisiana","nameEs":"Louisiana","nameFr":"Louisiane","subnationCode":"LA","dnationId":225},"roundedSRank":"S1","dataSensitive":{"id":2,"dataSensitiveDescEn":"No","dataSensitiveDescEs":null,"dataSensitiveDescFr":null,"dataSensitiveCode":"N"},"dataSensitiveCategory":null,"srank":"S1","speciesSubnational":{"elementSubnationalId":1231230,"hybrid":false,"exotic":false,"native":true}},{"elementSubnationalId":372890,"subnation":{"id":12,"nameEn":"Florida","nameEs":"Florida","nameFr":"Floride","subnationCode":"FL","dnationId":225},"roundedSRank":"S3","dataSensitive":{"id":2,"dataSensitiveDescEn":"No","dataSensitiveDescEs":null,"dataSensitiveDescFr":null,"dataSensitiveCode":"N"},"dataSensitiveCategory":null,"srank":"S3","speciesSubnational":{"elementSubnationalId":372890,"hybrid":false,"exotic":false,"native":true}},{"elementSubnationalId":1274660,"subnation":{"id":32,"nameEn":"Mississippi","nameEs":"Mississippi","nameFr":"Mississippi","subnationCode":"MS","dnationId":225},"roundedSRank":"SU","dataSensitive":{"id":2,"dataSensitiveDescEn":"No","dataSensitiveDescEs":null,"dataSensitiveDescFr":null,"dataSensitiveCode":"N"},"dataSensitiveCategory":null,"srank":"SU","speciesSubnational":{"elementSubnationalId":1274660,"hybrid":false,"exotic":false,"native":true}},{"elementSubnationalId":907640,"subnation":{"id":51,"nameEn":"Texas","nameEs":"Texas","nameFr":"Texas","subnationCode":"TX","dnationId":225},"roundedSRank":"S4","dataSensitive":{"id":2,"dataSensitiveDescEn":"No","dataSensitiveDescEs":null,"dataSensitiveDescFr":null,"dataSensitiveCode":"N"},"dataSensitiveCategory":null,"srank":"S4","speciesSubnational":{"elementSubnationalId":907640,"hybrid":false,"exotic":false,"native":true}},{"elementSubnationalId":1290709,"subnation":{"id":48,"nameEn":"South Carolina","nameEs":"Carolina del Sur","nameFr":"Caroline du Sud","subnationCode":"SC","dnationId":225},"roundedSRank":"S1","dataSensitive":{"id":2,"dataSensitiveDescEn":"No","dataSensitiveDescEs":null,"dataSensitiveDescFr":null,"dataSensitiveCode":"N"},"dataSensitiveCategory":null,"srank":"S1","speciesSubnational":{"elementSubnationalId":1290709,"hybrid":false,"exotic":false,"native":true}}],"nrankReviewYear":null,"nrank":"NNR","speciesNational":{"elementNationalId":166271,"exotic":false,"native":true}}],"lastModified":"2026-10-02T21:38:16.772803Z","lastPublished":"2026-10-02T21:32:08.892226Z","promotionalDescription":null,"conceptLineageSummary":null,"nsxUrl":"/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.102238/Epinephelus_itajara","grankAdjustmentReasons":null,"grankChangeDate":"2014-11-06","grankReviewDate":"2014-11-06","grankReasons":"Relatively wide geographic range in tropical and subtropical waters of the Atlantic and eastern Pacific oceans; greatest abundance occurs off peninsular Florida; significant population declines due to overfishing seem to have occurred throughout range, but principally in the eastern Gulf of Mexico and southeastern U.S.; considered extremely vulnerable to fishing because of life history characteristics; there is little, if any, evidence of recovery of overfished populations; status of populations in the eastern Pacific is unknown.","grank":"G3","rankInfo":{"elementGlobalId":102238,"aooPercentGood":null,"enviromentalSpecificity":{"id":6,"enviromentalSpecificityDescEn":"Narrow to moderate.","enviromentalSpecificityDescEs":"Estrecho a moderado.","enviromentalSpecificityDescFr":"D’étroit à modéré."},"intrinsicVulnerability":{"id":2,"intrinsicVulnerabilityDescEn":"Highly to moderately vulnerable.","intrinsicVulnerabilityDescEs":"Altamente a moderadamente vulnerable.","intrinsicVulnerabilityDescFr":"De très à moyennement vulnérable"},"longTermTrend":{"id":12,"longTermTrendDescEn":"Decline of 50-90%","longTermTrendDescEs":"Disminución de 50 a 90%.","longTermTrendDescFr":"Diminution de 50 à 90 %"},"numberEos":{"id":12,"numberEosDescEn":"21 to >300","numberEosDescEs":"De 21 a >300","numberEosDescFr":"De 21 à >300"},"numberGoodEos":{"id":9,"numberGoodEosDescEn":"Very few to some (1-40)","numberGoodEosDescEs":"Muy pocos a algunos (1-40)","numberGoodEosDescFr":"De très peu à quelques-uns (de 1 à 40)"},"numberProtEos":{"id":7,"numberProtEosDescEn":"Few to several (1-12) occurrences appropriately protected and managed","numberProtEosDescEs":"Gradualmente hasta unos pocos casos (1 a 12) adecuadamente protegidos y controlados","numberProtEosDescFr":"De peu à quelques occurrences (de 1 à 12) protégées et contrôlées convenablement"},"popSize":{"id":29,"popSizeDescEn":"2500 - 1,000,000 individuals","popSizeDescEs":"De 2.500 a 1.000.000 de individuos","popSizeDescFr":"De 2 500 à 1 000 000 individus"},"rangeExtent":{"id":32,"rangeExtentDescEn":"20,000 to >2,500,000 square km (about 8000 to >1,000,000 square miles)","rangeExtentDescEs":"20.000 a >2.500.000 kilómetros cuadrados (aproximadamente 8.000 a >1.000.000 millas cuadradas)","rangeExtentDescFr":"De 20 000 à >2 500 000 km carrés (de 8 000 à >1 000 000 miles carrés approximativement)"},"shortTermTrend":{"id":29,"shortTermTrendDescEn":"Decline of <70% to increase of <25%","shortTermTrendDescEs":"Disminución de <70% a aumento de <25%.","shortTermTrendDescFr":"Diminution de <70 % à augmentation de <25 %"},"threatImpactAssigned":null,"rangeExtentComments":"Tropical and subtropical waters of the Atlantic and eastern Pacific oceans. Ranges from Florida to southern Brazil in the western Atlantic and occurs widely in the Gulf of Mexico and most of the Caribbean (Carpenter 2002). Occurs from the Gulf of California to Peru in the eastern Pacific (Beebe and Tee-van 1933, Heemstra and Randall 1993, Greenfield and Thomerson 1997, Hoese and Moore 1998, Carpenter 2002). Also occurs in east Africa from Senegal to the Congo (Carpenter 2002), but reported as Epinephelus esonue (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Rare in Aruba, Bonaire, and Curacao, and cited as uncommon in the Lesser Antilles such as Saba, St. Martin, and St. Eustatius (Nagelkerken 1981a, FAO 1993). Specific location records include: Bermuda (Smith 1958), Bahamas (Smith 1971, Roe 1976), Campeche Bank, Mexico (Roe 1976), eastern Gulf of Mexico or west Florida shelf (Tabb and Manning 1961, Smith et al. 1975, Colin 1990), Florida Keys (Starck, 1968; Voss et al. 1969), Cuba (Smith 1971), Jamaica (Thompson and Munro 1983), Hispaniola (Smith 1971), Brazil, and Colombia (Smith 1971). The range in the Atlantic is principally confined to south Florida (Huntsman et al. 1990); spawning aggregations reported only in the eastern Gulf of Mexico (Bullock and Smith 1991, Bullock et al. 1992).","areaOfOccupancy":null,"areaOfOccupancyComments":null,"numberEosComments":"Difficult to delineate occurrences for marine species such as this that minimally occur along thousands of miles of coastlines (See GRANGE COMMENTS).  Hence, exact number of occurrences is unknown (and perhaps not terribly meaningful) but could be construed as very large given the huge range of the species.  However, if based upon known spawning aggregation sites (e.g., in the eastern Gulf of Mexico [Colin 1990, Bullock and Smith 1991]), the number of extant occurrences may be limited.","popSizeComments":"Global abundance is unknown. Absent, disappearing, or becoming increasingly rare throughout range; especially true for larger individuals (Sobel 1996). The center of abundance is off peninsular Florida; more abundant in south Florida than in northern waters (Caribbean Fisheries Management Council 1993). Historically common in deeper channels in northern Florida Bay, Cape Sable; adults up to more than 400 pounds were taken in the Shark River estuary in the 1960s (Tabb and Manning 1961). Considered historically frequent in the Florida Keys (Starck 1968) but considered less common in the Florida Keys than in the Dry Tortugas (Jones and Thompson 1978). Commonly landed by Cuban Gulf Fleet operating off west Florida during the 1970s (Tashiro and Coleman 1977). Historically, the majority of the U.S. commercial catch was landed along the Gulf coast of Florida; landings were maximal in 1988, with 61,700 kg landed (Bullock et al. 1992). Prior to a moratorium on harvest, commercial landings in Monroe County, Florida, remained relatively stable between 1977 (14,558 kg) and 1989 (11,236 kg). Formerly very abundant in recreational landings; over 104,000 kg landed in 1982 compared to only 16,781 kg landed in 1989 (Bohnsack et al. 1994). Very rare in Aruba, Bonaire, and Curacao; uncommon in St. Martin, St. Eustatius, and Saba (Nagelkerken 1981a). Considered rare in Bermuda (Smith 1958). Also very rare in the central Bahamas; only one large individual (1.5 m) observed at 70 sites surveyed (Sluka et al. 1996).","viabilityComments":"Difficult to delineate occurrences for species such as this that may occur more or less continuously along long coastlines.  Hence, exact number of good occurrences is unknown but likely there are some given the wide range of the species.  However, most occurrences range-wide have been overfished.","threatImpactComments":"Historically this species was of commercial and recreational importance in the western central Atlantic, but now it is considered the most impacted grouper species in the region (Sadovy 1990). Considered very threatened range-wide, principally from fishing and life history characteristics: slow growth, longevity, low natural mortality, and high vulnerability during spawning aggregations (Bullock et al. 1992, Heemstra and Randall 1993). Fishermen historically exploited spawning aggregations in the Key West area. Considered overfished in the Florida Keys based upon a spawning potential ratio less than 30 percent (Ault et al. 1998). Of minor importance in commercial fisheries off the west coast of Florida, where landings for 1988 totaled 61,700 kg; easily approached and speared by divers, and hence they are scarce in areas accessible to divers (Bullock et al. 1992). Caught with hook-and-line, occasionally in traps and trawls. Chief method of harvest in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands is spearfishing (Caribbean Fisheries Management Council 1993).  Presently protected in U.S. territorial waters and the U.S. Virgin Islands.  Mortality from red tide outbreaks has been documented off the Florida Gulf coast (Southeast Fisheries Science Center undated).","shortTermTrendComments":"Most severely impacted grouper in the western Atlantic; overfishing led to severe reductions in populations (Sadovy 1990). Presently scarce throughout the Gulf of Mexico, U.S. western Atlantic, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands; no longer abundant in any part of range (Caribbean Fisheries Management Council 1993). Declines in landings led to fishery closures in the state of Florida and U.S. territorial waters in 1990 (Bohnsack et al. 1994). Considered overfished in the Florida Keys based on low spawning potential ratio (Ault et al. 1998). Not common in the Netherlands Antilles (Nagelkerken 1981b). Specimens over 500 pounds were frequently observed while diving offshore of Tampa Bay and other areas of the eastern Gulf of Mexico in the 1950s and 1960s (Springer and Woodburn 1960).  The IUCN concluded that overall population reduction over the last 3 generations or 10 years may have exceeded 80% (Florida Museum of Natural History undated).  A 2004 stock assessment for the Gulf of Mexico indicated that the population is recovering, but that full recovery may not occur until 2020 or later (Southeast Fisheries Science Center undated).","longTermTrendComments":null,"inventoryNeeds":"More detailed surveys of distribution and abundance are needed. There is a paucity of data regionwide for tracking stock history and assessing stock status. Data pertaining to aggregation catches and annual landings (recreational and commercial), including catch per unit effort, sex ratios, and sizes, should be collected. There is a need to standardize and improve data collection protocols and also to identify major data gaps. Information on the condition of stocks is patchy and largely incomplete (Sadovy 1990). Long-term landings and catch per unit effort are available from only a few western Atlantic locations.","numberProtEosComments":"The South Atlantic Fishery Management Council administers commercial and recreational fisheries in U.S. territorial waters of the Atlantic. Federal commercial regulations prohibit the possession or harvest of this species in or from the Economic Exclusive Zone.  Prior to the harvest ban in 1990, a minimum size limit of 13 inches (fork length) was established in Florida waters before 1970.  In 1985, the size limit was increased to 18 inches (Huntsman et al. 1990).  Harvest ban in U.S. federal waters and state waters of Florida became effective in 1990 because of vulnerability to overfishing and dramatic declines in populations (Bullock et al. 1992, Bohnsack et al. 1994).  Because it is rare and easily taken, it is now offered stringent protection in Texas, Louisiana, and Florida, where possession by anglers is prohibited (Hoese and Moore 1998).  It is unlawful to harvest, possess, land, purchase, sell or exchange the species in Florida.  Also protected from collection in the U.S. Virgin Islands (Caribbean Fisheries Management Council 1993).","protectionNeeds":"Stronger measures are needed to protect marine and especially coral reef habitats from all forms of degradation.  Occurrences should be protected to ensure long-term survival. Stocks should be managed to maintain adequate reproductive (spawning) stock biomass to sustain recruitment. Serious consideration should be given to the protection of spawning aggregations, at a minimum by prohibiting spear guns and fish traps and by permitting only low levels of exploitation at most. The introduction of no-fishing zones in critical areas also needs to be considered as a management option to address the problem of overfishing (Sadovy, in press).","otherConsiderations":"Recognized as a \"Critically Endangered\" species by the IUCN Red List (2014)","intrinsicVulnerabilityComments":"Vulnerable to excessive exploitation due to slow growth, delayed reproduction, and aggregate spawning.  Easily approached and speared by divers, and hence they are scarce in areas accessible to divers (Bullock et al. 1992).","enviromentalSpecificityComments":"Frequently associated with coral reef communities."},"animalCharacteristics":{"elementGlobalId":102238,"majorHabitat":{"id":1,"majorHabitatDescEn":"Marine","majorHabitatDescEs":"Marino","majorHabitatDescFr":"Marine"},"nonMigrant":false,"localMigrant":false,"longDistanceMigrant":false,"mobilityMigrationComments":null,"foodHabitsComments":"Smith (1971): eats mainly crustaceans.","animalPhenologyComments":null,"colonialBreeder":false,"length":null,"width":null,"weight":null,"animalPhenologies":[],"animalFoodHabits":[]},"occurrenceDelineations":[{"eoSpecsDetailId":-1,"locationUseClass":null,"eoSpecGroupName":"Default","subtypes":null,"inferredExtentDistance":null,"inferredExtentNotes":null,"minimumEoCriteria":null,"mappingGuidance":null,"separationBarriers":null,"separationDistanceUnsuitableHabitatat":1.0,"separationDistanceSuitableHabitatat":1.0,"altSeparationProcedure":null,"separationJustification":null,"versionDate":null,"versionAuthor":null,"versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2020-02-25T14:20:12.251048Z"}],"plantCharacteristics":null,"elementManagement":{"elementGlobalId":102238,"eoManagementGroupName":null,"stewardshipOverview":null,"impacts":null,"restorationPotential":null,"siteConservationPlansConsidered":null,"managementMethods":null,"monitoringMethods":null,"managementProgramContacts":null,"monitoringProgramContacts":null,"managementResearchPrograms":null,"managementResearchNeeds":null,"biologicalResearchNeeds":"More research on population dynamics and reproductive biology is needed. A greater understanding of reproductive biology would greatly facilitate stock management. There is a need to know (1) whether most annual reproduction occurs at spawning aggregations and (2) the geographic locations and durations of significant aggregations. There is also a need to know how aggregation fishing is likely to affect courtship or spawning behavior. Relatively little is known concerning the minimum size of sexual maturation relative to the size of entry into the fishery. It is also not known to what extent individuals recruit locally or from larvae from up-current and/or off-island locations. Little is known concerning the characteristics of critical juvenile habitat nor of the principal settlement periods (Sadovy 1990).","additionalTopics":null},"occurrenceViabilities":[{"eoRankSpecsDetailId":103758,"eoRankSpecsGroupName":null,"locationUseClass":{"id":1,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Not applicable","locationUseClassDescEs":"No se aplica","locationUseClassDescFr":"Sans objet","displayOrder":1},"excellentViability":null,"goodViability":null,"fairViability":null,"poorViability":null,"viabilityJustification":"Use the Generic Guidelines for the Application of Occurrence Ranks (2008).<br>The Key for Ranking Species Occurrences Using the Generic Approach provides a step-wise process for implementing this method.","versionDate":null,"versionAuthor":null,"versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2020-05-14T02:21:06.16123Z"}],"references":[{"id":123388,"citation":"Ault, J.S., Bohnsack, J.A. and Meester, G.A. 1998. A retrospective (1979-1996) multispecies assessment of coral reef fish stocks in the Florida Keys. Fishery Bulletin 96: 395-414.","shortCitationAuthor":"Ault et al.","shortCitationYear":1998,"referenceCode":"A98AUL01FCUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:14:18.446608Z"},{"id":135669,"citation":"Beebe, W. and Tee-van, J. 1933. Field book of the shore fishes of Bermuda and the West Indies. Dover Publications, New York. 337 pp.","shortCitationAuthor":"Beebe and Tee-van","shortCitationYear":1933,"referenceCode":"B33BEE01FCUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:14:18.446608Z"},{"id":126142,"citation":"Bohnsack, J.A., Harper, D.E. and McClellan, D.B. 1994. Fisheries trends from Monroe County, Florida. Bulletin of Marine Science 54(3): 982-1018.","shortCitationAuthor":"Bohnsack et al.","shortCitationYear":1994,"referenceCode":"A94BOH01FCUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:14:18.463671Z"},{"id":120877,"citation":"Bullock, L.H. and Smith, G.B. 1991. Seabasses (Pisces: Serranidae). Memoirs of the Hourglass Cruises, Volume VIII, Part II. Florida Marine Research Institute, Department of Natural Resources, St. Petersburg, Florida. 243 pp.","shortCitationAuthor":"Bullock and Smith","shortCitationYear":1991,"referenceCode":"A91BUL01FCUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:13:05.429745Z"},{"id":112576,"citation":"Bullock, L.H., Murphy, M.D., Godcharles, M.F. and Mitchell, M.E. 1992. Age, growth, and reproduction of jewfish Epinephelus itajara in the eastern Gulf of Mexico. Fishery Bulletin 90(2): 243-249.","shortCitationAuthor":"Bullock et al.","shortCitationYear":1992,"referenceCode":"A92BUL01FCUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:17:12.683698Z"},{"id":112929,"citation":"Caribbean Fisheries Management Council. 1993. Amendment 2 to the fishery management plan for the shallow-water reef fish fishery of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. 29 pp.","shortCitationAuthor":"Caribbean Fisheries Management Council","shortCitationYear":1993,"referenceCode":"R93CAR01FCUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:13:05.429745Z"},{"id":761993,"citation":"Carpenter, K. E. (Ed.). 2002. The living marine resources of the Western Central Atlantic. 3 volumes. FAO Species Identification Guide for Fishery Purposes and American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists, Special Publication 5.","shortCitationAuthor":"Carpenter","shortCitationYear":2002,"referenceCode":"B02CAR01HQUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:17:12.668012Z"},{"id":126653,"citation":"Colin, P.L. 1990. Preliminary investigations of reproductive activity of the jewfish, Epinephelus itajara (Pisces: Serranidae). Proceedings of the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute 43: 138-147.","shortCitationAuthor":"Colin","shortCitationYear":1990,"referenceCode":"A90COL02FCUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:17:12.683698Z"},{"id":139020,"citation":"Craig, M. T., D. J. Pondella, II, J.P.C. Franck, and J. C. Hafner. 2001. On the status of the serranid fish genus EPINEPHELUS: evidence for paraphyly based upon 16S rDNA sequence. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 19:121-130.","shortCitationAuthor":"Craig et al.","shortCitationYear":2001,"referenceCode":"A01CRA01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:13:05.429745Z"},{"id":122076,"citation":"Domeier, M.L. and Colin, P.L. 1997. Tropical reef fish spawning aggregations: Defined and reviewed. Bulletin of Marine Science 60(3): 698-726.","shortCitationAuthor":"Domeier and Colin","shortCitationYear":1997,"referenceCode":"A97DOM01FCUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:14:18.446608Z"},{"id":103840,"citation":"FAO. 1993. Marine fishery resources of the Antilles: Lesser Antilles, Puerto Rico and Hispaniola, Jamaica, Cuba. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper Number 326, 235 pp.","shortCitationAuthor":"FAO","shortCitationYear":1993,"referenceCode":"R93FAO01FCUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:13:05.429745Z"},{"id":139907,"citation":"Greenfield, D. W., and J. E. Thomerson. 1997. Fishes of the continental waters of Belize. University Press of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. 311 pp.","shortCitationAuthor":"Greenfield and Thomerson","shortCitationYear":1997,"referenceCode":"B97GRE01FCUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:14:18.477854Z"},{"id":117408,"citation":"Heemstra, P.C. and Randall, J.E. 1993. FAO Species Catalogue Volume 16, Groupers of the World (Family Serranidae, Subfamily Epinephelinae). An annotated and illustrated catalogue of the grouper, rockcod, hind, coral grouper and lyretail species known to date. FAO Fisheries Synopsis Number 125, FAO, Rome. 382 pp.","shortCitationAuthor":"Heemstra and Randall","shortCitationYear":1993,"referenceCode":"R93HEE01FCUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:14:18.446608Z"},{"id":142129,"citation":"Hoese, H.D. and Moore, R.H. 1998. Fishes of the Gulf of Mexico. Texas, Louisiana, and adjacent waters. 2nd edition, Texas A&M University Press, College Station, Texas. 422 pp.","shortCitationAuthor":"Hoese and Moore","shortCitationYear":1998,"referenceCode":"B98HOE01FCUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:14:18.463671Z"},{"id":108530,"citation":"Huntsman, G.R., Potts, J. and Mays, R.W. 1990. A preliminary assessment of the populations of seven species of grouper (Serranidae, Epinephelinae) in the western Atlantic Ocean from Cape Hatteras, North Carolina to the Dry Tortugas, Florida. Proceedings of the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute 43: 193-213.","shortCitationAuthor":"Huntsman et al.","shortCitationYear":1990,"referenceCode":"A90HUN01FCUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:14:18.446608Z"},{"id":762531,"citation":"IUCN. 2014. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014.2. http://www.iucnredlist.org","shortCitationAuthor":"IUCN","shortCitationYear":2014,"referenceCode":"W14IUC02HQUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:17:12.668012Z"},{"id":141109,"citation":"Jones, R.S. and Thompson, M.J. 1978. Comparison of Florida reef fish assemblages using a rapid visual technique. Bulletin of Marine Science 28(1): 159-172.","shortCitationAuthor":"Jones and Thompson","shortCitationYear":1978,"referenceCode":"A78JON01FCUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:14:18.463671Z"},{"id":129176,"citation":"Nagelkerken, W. 1981. Distribution of the groupers and snappers of the Netherlands Antilles. 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American Fisheries Society, Special Publication 29, Bethesda, Maryland. 386 pp.","shortCitationAuthor":"Nelson et al.","shortCitationYear":2004,"referenceCode":"B04NEL01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T14:20:12.297935Z"},{"id":1139849,"citation":"Page, L. M., K. E. Bemis, T. E. Dowling, H.S. Espinosa-Pérez, L.T. Findley, C. R. Gilbert, K. E. Hartel, R. N. Lea, N. E. Mandrak, M. A. Neigbors, J. J. Schmitter-Soto, and H. J. Walker, Jr. 2023. Common and scientific names of fishes from the United States, Canada, and Mexico. Eighth edition. American Fisheries Society (AFS), Special Publication 37, Bethesda, Maryland, 439 pp.","shortCitationAuthor":"Page et al.","shortCitationYear":2023,"referenceCode":"B23PAG01NAUS","lastModified":"2024-08-02T21:41:01.515075Z"},{"id":110150,"citation":"Parrish, J.D. 1987. The trophic biology of snappers and groupers. Pp. 405-463 In: Tropical Snappers and Groupers: Biology and Fisheries Management. J.J. Polovina and S. 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Menzel (Eds.), Bermuda Trade Development Board, Hamilton, Bermuda. 59 pp.","shortCitationAuthor":"Smith","shortCitationYear":1958,"referenceCode":"A58SMI01FCUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:13:05.429745Z"},{"id":132384,"citation":"Smith, C.L. 1971. A revision of the American groupers: Epinephelus and allied genera. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 146, 241 pp.","shortCitationAuthor":"Smith","shortCitationYear":1971,"referenceCode":"A71SMI01FCUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:13:05.429745Z"},{"id":140493,"citation":"Smith, G.B., Austin, H.M., Bortone, S.A., Hastings, R.W. and Ogren, L.H. 1975. Fishes of the Florida Middle Ground with comments on ecology and zoogeography. Florida Marine Research Publications Number 9: 1-14.","shortCitationAuthor":"Smith et al.","shortCitationYear":1975,"referenceCode":"A75SMI01FCUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:17:12.668012Z"},{"id":107884,"citation":"Sobel, J. 1996. Marine reserves: Necessary tools for biodiversity conservation? 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Munro (Ed.), International Center for Living and Aquatic Resources Management, Manila, Philippines.","shortCitationAuthor":"Thompson and Munro","shortCitationYear":1983,"referenceCode":"A83THO02FCUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:13:05.445333Z"},{"id":152756,"citation":"Topp, R. 1963. The tagging of fishes in Florida 1962 program. Florida State Board of Conservation Professional Paper Series 5, 76 pp.","shortCitationAuthor":"Topp","shortCitationYear":1963,"referenceCode":"A63TOP01FCUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:17:12.668012Z"},{"id":144146,"citation":"Voss, G.L., Bayer, F.M., Robins, C.R., Gomon, M. and LaRoe, E.T. 1969. The Marine Ecology of the Biscayne National Monument. A Report to the National Park Service, Department of Interior. Institute of Marine Sciences, University of Miami. 169 pp.","shortCitationAuthor":"Voss et al.","shortCitationYear":1969,"referenceCode":"R69VOS01FCUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:14:11.836978Z"},{"id":762012,"citation":"Walls, J. G. 1976. Fishes of the northern Gulf of Mexico. T.F.H. 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Formerly on the 1999 candidate species list (Federal Register, 23 June 1999).  Removed from the species of concern list by a NMFS review team because it no longer met the criteria for being a species of concern (Federal Register, 17 October 2006).","completeDistribution":false,"synonyms":[],"infraspeciesList":[],"ebarId":null,"ebarCanadianScope":null,"ebarGlobalScope":null,"ebarKbaGroup":"Fishes","caGeneralStatusId":null},"speciesCharacteristics":{"elementGlobalId":102238,"reproductionComments":"Transient spawning aggregations (Domeier and Colin 1997) have been observed from July-September in the eastern Gulf of Mexico (Colin 1990, Bullock and Smith 1991, Bullock et al. 1992). May pair-spawn like coney during August-September (Colin 1990). Spawning aggregations may consist of 20-30 large adults (45-200 kg) (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Batch fecundity for two females of 132 and 140 cm SL was 37-40 million and 55-58 million oocytes, respectively. Reproductive ability or maturation is not attained until a very large size: males first mature at 110-115 cm total length (4-6 years of age), while females first mature at 120-135 cm total length (6-7 years of age) (Bullock et al. 1992). Growth averages greater than 100 mm/year until the age of 6 years, when sexual maturity is attained; growth then declines to about 30 mm/year at age 15 (182-191 cm total length) and to less than 10 mm/year after age 25. Extremely long lived, with a lifespan of 30-50 years.","ecologyComments":"Individuals tend to be site- or reef-specific, however, tagging studies have shown individuals may move 12 miles or more (Topp 1963).","habitatComments":"Often found in shallow water; juveniles are common in mangrove swamps and both juveniles and adults occur in bays and harbors. Large adults are also encountered offshore on wrecks and in areas of high relief; they appear to occupy limited home ranges with little inter-reef movement (Heemstra and Randall 1993). 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