{"elementGlobalId":102211,"circumscripConfidence":{"id":1,"circumscripConfidenceDescEn":"1 - Strong","circumscripConfidenceDescEs":"1 - Fuerte","circumscripConfidenceDescFr":"1 – Forte"},"classificationLevel":{"id":7,"classificationLevelNameEn":"Species","classificationLevelNameEs":"Especies","classificationLevelNameFr":"Espèce"},"classificationStatus":{"id":1,"classificationStatusDescEn":"Standard","classificationStatusDescEs":"Estándar","classificationStatusDescFr":"Standard"},"iucn":{"id":5,"iucnDescEn":"Vulnerable","iucnDescEs":"Vulnerable","iucnDescFr":"Vulnérable","iucnCode":"VU"},"nameCategory":{"id":1,"nameCategoryDescEn":"Vertebrate Animal","nameCategoryDescEs":"Animal vertebrado","nameCategoryDescFr":"Animal vertébré","nameTypeCd":"A","nameTypeDesc":"Zoological"},"rankMethodUsed":{"id":4,"rankMethodUsedDescEn":"Expertise without calculation","rankMethodUsedDescEs":null,"rankMethodUsedDescFr":null,"rankMethodUsedExternalDescEn":"Ranked by inspection","rankMethodUsedExternalDescEs":null,"rankMethodUsedExternalDescFr":null},"formattedScientificName":"<i>Ursus maritimus</i>","scientificName":"Ursus maritimus","scientificNameAuthor":"Phipps, 1774","primaryCommonName":"Polar Bear","relatedItisNames":"<i>Ursus maritimus</i> Phipps, 1774 (TSN 180542)","uniqueId":"ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.102211","elcode":"AMAJB01030","conceptRefFullCitation":"Wilson, D. E., and D. M. Reeder (editors). 1993. Mammal species of the world: a taxonomic and geographic reference. Second edition. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC. xviii + 1206 pp. Available online at: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/msw/.","conceptName":"<i>Ursus maritimus</i>","taxonomicComments":"<i>Ursus maritimus</i> appears to share a common ancestor with the present-day grizzly/brown bear (<i>Ursus arctos</i>), branching off the brown bear lineage during the late Pleistocene (Amstrup 2003). Various evidence sources indicate these species are sister taxa, more closely related to each other than either is to the black bear (<i>Ursus americanus</i>); mtDNA sequences of brown bears from the Alexander Archipelago, southeast Alaska, were even found to be more closely related to mtDNA of polar bears than of other brown bears (Cronin et al. 1991). Cronin et al. (1991) found low divergence in mtDNA haplotypes among polar bear populations from Alaska and Canada.","roundedGRank":"G3","conservationStatusFactorsEditionDate":"2011-04-05","conservationStatusFactorsEditionAuthors":"Gotthardt, T. A., C. A. Coray, J. G. McClory, and G. Hammerson","primaryCommonNameLanguage":"EN","recordType":"SPECIES","elementNationals":[{"elementNationalId":167904,"classifConfidence":null,"nation":{"id":225,"nameEn":"United States","nameEs":"Estados Unidos","nameFr":"États-Unis","isoCode":"US","region":"United States"},"roundedNRank":"N3","elementSubnationals":[{"elementSubnationalId":350400,"subnation":{"id":1,"nameEn":"Alaska","nameEs":"Alaska","nameFr":"Alaska","subnationCode":"AK","dnationId":225},"roundedSRank":"S2","dataSensitive":{"id":2,"dataSensitiveDescEn":"No","dataSensitiveDescEs":null,"dataSensitiveDescFr":null,"dataSensitiveCode":"N"},"dataSensitiveCategory":null,"srank":"S2","speciesSubnational":{"elementSubnationalId":350400,"hybrid":false,"exotic":false,"native":true}}],"nrankReviewYear":2008,"nrank":"N3","speciesNational":{"elementNationalId":167904,"exotic":false,"native":true}},{"elementNationalId":164920,"classifConfidence":null,"nation":{"id":38,"nameEn":"Canada","nameEs":"Canadá","nameFr":"Canada","isoCode":"CA","region":"Canada"},"roundedNRank":"N3","elementSubnationals":[{"elementSubnationalId":272207,"subnation":{"id":67,"nameEn":"Ontario","nameEs":"Ontario","nameFr":"Ontario","subnationCode":"ON","dnationId":38},"roundedSRank":"S3","dataSensitive":{"id":2,"dataSensitiveDescEn":"No","dataSensitiveDescEs":null,"dataSensitiveDescFr":null,"dataSensitiveCode":"N"},"dataSensitiveCategory":null,"srank":"S3","speciesSubnational":{"elementSubnationalId":272207,"hybrid":false,"exotic":false,"native":true}},{"elementSubnationalId":344377,"subnation":{"id":227,"nameEn":"Nunavut","nameEs":"Nunavut","nameFr":"Nunavut","subnationCode":"NU","dnationId":38},"roundedSRank":"S3","dataSensitive":{"id":1,"dataSensitiveDescEn":"Yes","dataSensitiveDescEs":null,"dataSensitiveDescFr":null,"dataSensitiveCode":"Y"},"dataSensitiveCategory":{"id":1,"dataSensitiveCategoryDescEn":"Poaching/Collection Threat","dataSensitiveCategoryDescEs":null,"dataSensitiveCategoryDescFr":null,"nsStandardInd":true},"srank":"S3","speciesSubnational":{"elementSubnationalId":344377,"hybrid":false,"exotic":false,"native":true}},{"elementSubnationalId":368279,"subnation":{"id":62,"nameEn":"Manitoba","nameEs":"Manitoba","nameFr":"Manitoba","subnationCode":"MB","dnationId":38},"roundedSRank":"S2","dataSensitive":{"id":1,"dataSensitiveDescEn":"Yes","dataSensitiveDescEs":null,"dataSensitiveDescFr":null,"dataSensitiveCode":"Y"},"dataSensitiveCategory":null,"srank":"S2","speciesSubnational":{"elementSubnationalId":368279,"hybrid":false,"exotic":false,"native":true}},{"elementSubnationalId":336807,"subnation":{"id":65,"nameEn":"Northwest Territories","nameEs":"Territorios del Noroeste","nameFr":"Territoires du Nord-Ouest","subnationCode":"NT","dnationId":38},"roundedSRank":"S3","dataSensitive":{"id":2,"dataSensitiveDescEn":"No","dataSensitiveDescEs":null,"dataSensitiveDescFr":null,"dataSensitiveCode":"N"},"dataSensitiveCategory":null,"srank":"S3S4","speciesSubnational":{"elementSubnationalId":336807,"hybrid":false,"exotic":false,"native":true}},{"elementSubnationalId":345059,"subnation":{"id":91,"nameEn":"Labrador","nameEs":"Labrador","nameFr":"Labrador","subnationCode":"LB","dnationId":38},"roundedSRank":"S3","dataSensitive":{"id":2,"dataSensitiveDescEn":"No","dataSensitiveDescEs":null,"dataSensitiveDescFr":null,"dataSensitiveCode":"N"},"dataSensitiveCategory":null,"srank":"S3","speciesSubnational":{"elementSubnationalId":345059,"hybrid":false,"exotic":false,"native":true}},{"elementSubnationalId":398956,"subnation":{"id":93,"nameEn":"Yukon Territory","nameEs":"Territorio del Yukón","nameFr":"Territoire du Yukon","subnationCode":"YT","dnationId":38},"roundedSRank":"S1","dataSensitive":{"id":1,"dataSensitiveDescEn":"Yes","dataSensitiveDescEs":null,"dataSensitiveDescFr":null,"dataSensitiveCode":"Y"},"dataSensitiveCategory":{"id":1,"dataSensitiveCategoryDescEn":"Poaching/Collection Threat","dataSensitiveCategoryDescEs":null,"dataSensitiveCategoryDescFr":null,"nsStandardInd":true},"srank":"S1","speciesSubnational":{"elementSubnationalId":398956,"hybrid":false,"exotic":false,"native":true}},{"elementSubnationalId":407249,"subnation":{"id":69,"nameEn":"Quebec","nameEs":"Quebec","nameFr":"Québec","subnationCode":"QC","dnationId":38},"roundedSRank":"S3N","dataSensitive":{"id":2,"dataSensitiveDescEn":"No","dataSensitiveDescEs":null,"dataSensitiveDescFr":null,"dataSensitiveCode":"N"},"dataSensitiveCategory":null,"srank":"S3N","speciesSubnational":{"elementSubnationalId":407249,"hybrid":false,"exotic":false,"native":true}}],"nrankReviewYear":2022,"nrank":"N3N4","speciesNational":{"elementNationalId":164920,"exotic":false,"native":true}}],"lastModified":"2026-10-02T21:38:13.802815Z","lastPublished":"2026-10-02T21:32:08.892226Z","promotionalDescription":null,"conceptLineageSummary":null,"nsxUrl":"/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.102211/Ursus_maritimus","grankAdjustmentReasons":null,"grankChangeDate":"2008-10-16","grankReviewDate":"2016-04-05","grankReasons":"Restricted to high northern latitudes; total population size 20,000-25,000, in about 19 relatively discrete major populations; global warming effects on sea ice are projected to result in major declines in polar bear distribution and abundance over the foreseeable future.","grank":"G3","rankInfo":{"elementGlobalId":102211,"aooPercentGood":null,"enviromentalSpecificity":{"id":1,"enviromentalSpecificityDescEn":"Very narrow.  Specialist or community with key requirements scarce.","enviromentalSpecificityDescEs":"Muy estrecho.  Especialista o comunidad con requisitos claves escasos.","enviromentalSpecificityDescFr":"Très étroit. Spécialistes ou communautés répondant aux critères clés sont rares."},"intrinsicVulnerability":{"id":1,"intrinsicVulnerabilityDescEn":"Highly vulnerable","intrinsicVulnerabilityDescEs":"Altamente vulnerable","intrinsicVulnerabilityDescFr":"Très vulnérable"},"longTermTrend":null,"numberEos":{"id":6,"numberEosDescEn":"6 - 20","numberEosDescEs":"De 6 a 20","numberEosDescFr":"De 6 à 20"},"numberGoodEos":null,"numberProtEos":null,"popSize":{"id":31,"popSizeDescEn":"10,000 - 100,000 individuals","popSizeDescEs":"De 10.000 a 100.000 individuos","popSizeDescFr":"De 10 000 à 100 000 individus"},"rangeExtent":{"id":35,"rangeExtentDescEn":">2,500,000 square km (greater than 1,000,000 square miles)","rangeExtentDescEs":">2.500.000 kilómetros cuadrados (más ","rangeExtentDescFr":">2 500 000 km carrés (plus de 1 000 000 miles carrés)"},"shortTermTrend":{"id":37,"shortTermTrendDescEn":"Decline of <30% to relatively stable","shortTermTrendDescEs":"Disminución de <30% a relativamente estable","shortTermTrendDescFr":"Diminution de <30 % à relativement stable"},"threatImpactAssigned":{"id":2,"threatImpactAssignedDescEn":"Very high - high","threatImpactAssignedDescEs":"Muy alto - alto","threatImpactAssignedDescFr":"Très élevé — élevé"},"rangeExtentComments":"Polar bears have a circumpolar distribution in the northern hemisphere, including the East Siberian, Laptev, Kara, and Barents seas of Russia; Fram Strait (the narrow strait between northern Greenland and Svalbard), Greenland Sea and Barents Sea of northern Europe (Norway and Greenland); Baffin Bay, which separates Canada and Greenland, through most of the Canadian Arctic archipelago and the Canadian Beaufort Sea; and the Chukchi and Beaufort seas west and north of Alaska (Amstrup 2003, USFWS 2008). The range encompasses portions of northern Canada (Northwest Territories to Labrador and Newfoundland), Greenland, Norway, northern Russian Federation (Krasnoyarsk, North European Russia, West Siberia, Yakutiya), Svalbard and Jan Mayen, and the United States (northern Alaska). Distribution in most areas changes with the seasonal extent of sea-ice cover. The species in now excluded by humans from some parts of the historical southern portion of the range.","areaOfOccupancy":null,"areaOfOccupancyComments":null,"numberEosComments":"Based on movement patterns and spatial segregation with limited interchange, the IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group and USFWS (2008) recognized 19 relatively discrete (but variously overlapping) populations or management units (Stirling 1991, Amstrup 2003), which correspond with major occupied ecogeographic units.","popSizeComments":"Total population is 20,000-25,000 (see USFWS 2008).","viabilityComments":null,"threatImpactComments":"Loss of the polar bear's primary habitat (sea ice) is the primary threat. Sea ice is rapidly diminishing throughout the Arctic, and the best available evidence is that Arctic sea ice will continue to be affected by climate change for the foreseeable future (see USFWS 2008 for extensive discussion).<br/><br/>USFWS (2008) determined that harvest is likely exacerbating the effects of habitat loss in several populations. In addition, polar bear mortality from harvest and negative bear-human interactions may in the future approach unsustainable levels for several populations, especially those experiencing nutritional stress or declining population numbers as a consequence of habitat change. Continued efforts are necessary to ensure that harvest or other forms of removal do not exceed sustainable levels. However, USFWS (2008) concluded that overutilization does not currently threaten the polar bear throughout all or a significant portion of its range.<br/><br/>USFWS (2008) evaluated the best available scientific information on disease and predation and determined that disease and predation (including intraspecific predation) do not threaten the species throughout all or any significant portion of its range. Potential for disease outbreaks, an increased possibility of pathogen exposure from changed diet or the occurrence of new pathogens that have moved northward with a warming environment, and increased mortality from cannibalism all warrant continued monitoring and may become more significant threat factors in the future for polar bear populations experiencing nutritional stress or declining population numbers.<br/><br/>Industrial development may hinder natural movement, feeding and breeding patterns, and could expose bears to chemical contaminants. Persistent organic pollutants, such as PCBs, may be adversely affected bear immune systems, thyroid function, and reproduction (Siegel and Cummings 2005: Appendix D). However, USFWS (2008) determined that contaminants, ecotourism, and shipping do not threaten the polar bear throughout all or any significant portion of its range. Some of these, particularly contaminants and shipping, may become more significant threats in the future for polar bear populations experiencing declines related to nutritional stress brought on by sea ice and environmental changes.<br/><br/>Low reproductive rate makes this species slow to recover from declines (Stirling 1991).","shortTermTrendComments":"USFWS (2008) reviewed available trend data and concluded that two polar bear populations are increasing (Viscount Melville Sound and M'Clintock Channel; both were severely reduced in the past and are recovering under conservative harvest limits); six populations are stable (Northern Beaufort Sea, Southern Hudson Bay, Davis Strait, Lancaster Sound, Gulf of Bothia, Foxe Basin); five populations are declining (Southern Beaufort Sea, Norwegian Bay, Western Hudson Bay, Kane Basin, Baffin Bay); and six populations are designated as data deficient (Barents Sea, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, Chukchi Sea, Arctic Basin, East Greenland) with no estimate of trend. The two populations with the most extensive time series of data, Western Hudson Bay and Southern Beaufort Sea, were both considered to be declining.<br/><br/>Within the foreseeable future (determined by USFWS 2008 to be 45 years, which is equivalent to three generations), the polar bear is likely to experience a significant decline, primarily as a result of loss of sea ice (USFWS 2008). The projected rate of decline is uncertain but likely will exceed 30 percent over three generations (IUCN SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group).","longTermTrendComments":null,"inventoryNeeds":null,"numberProtEosComments":"In the U.S., this species is protected and monitored under the Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) of 1972, listed as threatened under U.S. Endangered Species Act, and managed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. No harvest is allowable in Alaska except Native subsistence harvest. The United States along with Russia, Canada, Denmark, and Norway signed the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears in 1973. In October 2000, the U.S. and Russia signed a bilateral agreement for population and habitat conservation of the Chukchi/Bering Seas stock (Schliebe et al. 2002). U.S. Congress must pass \"The US-Russia Polar Bear Act\" before the agreement is formally ratified (Schoen and Senner 2002).","protectionNeeds":"See \"Final environmental assessment for the conservation of polar bears in the Chukchi/Bering seas,\" available in 1997 (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Marine Mammals Management Office, 101 East Tudor Road, Anchorage, AK 99503.","otherConsiderations":null,"intrinsicVulnerabilityComments":null,"enviromentalSpecificityComments":null},"animalCharacteristics":{"elementGlobalId":102211,"majorHabitat":{"id":3,"majorHabitatDescEn":"Terrestrial","majorHabitatDescEs":"Terrestre","majorHabitatDescFr":"Terrestre"},"nonMigrant":false,"localMigrant":false,"longDistanceMigrant":true,"mobilityMigrationComments":"Movements associated with distribution and movement of sea ice. In some areas makes extensive north-south migrations (DeMaster and Stirling 1981) that are dependent on seasonal melting and freezing of nearshore ice (Amstrup 2003). Moves south with drifting ice flows in spring/summer, north along shore in summer after ice breakup. See Amstrup (1995) for extensive information on movements in the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas.","foodHabitsComments":"Seals are primary food source; especially ringed, also bearded and harp seals. May hunt larger animals such as beluga whales and walruses and consumes fish, small mammals, bird eggs and sometimes vegetation, especially in summer when other food is unavailable. Pregnant females may fast for 8 months while in maternal dens (Derocher et al. 1992, Amstrup 2003). Reportedly are surplus killers, but do not normally cache prey they have killed. They consume the highest-fat portions of seals first and young or smaller bears may be driven away from kills by larger bears (Amstrup 2003). This species apparently digests fat more easily than protein and uses metabolic water released from fat metabolism, an efficient adaptation to the arctic environment where energy is otherwise required to melt ice and snow to make water available (Amstrup 2003).","animalPhenologyComments":"Most active during the first third of the day (DeMaster and Stirling 1981). Pregnant females are dormant in winter dens from autumn to spring, when young are able to survive outside. Variable snow and ice conditions determine when females enter and exit den sites (Amstrup 2003). In the Beaufort Sea, den entry dates averaged mid-November and den exit dates were late March/early April (Amstrup and Gardner 1994 in Amstrup 2003). Mean den entry for the Canadian Arctic was September 17 and mean den exit March 21 (Messier et al. 1994, in Amstrup 2003). Molting commences in April to May and shorter summer coats are achieved by late summer (Amstrup 2003).","colonialBreeder":false,"length":285,"width":null,"weight":800000,"animalPhenologies":[{"animalCagPhenologyId":101751,"animalPhenology":{"id":1,"animalPhenologyDescEn":"Hibernates/aestivates","animalPhenologyDescEs":"Hibernación/Estivación","animalPhenologyDescFr":"Hiberne/estive","displayOrder":1},"adult":true,"immature":true},{"animalCagPhenologyId":101752,"animalPhenology":{"id":3,"animalPhenologyDescEn":"Diurnal","animalPhenologyDescEs":"Diurno","animalPhenologyDescFr":"Diurne","displayOrder":3},"adult":true,"immature":true}],"animalFoodHabits":[{"animalCagFoodHabitsId":103261,"foodHabits":{"id":1,"foodHabitsDescEn":"Carnivore","foodHabitsDescEs":"Carnívoro","foodHabitsDescFr":"Carnivore","displayOrder":1},"adult":true,"immature":true},{"animalCagFoodHabitsId":106235,"foodHabits":{"id":13,"foodHabitsDescEn":"Unknown","foodHabitsDescEs":"Desconocido","foodHabitsDescFr":"Inconnu","displayOrder":15},"adult":false,"immature":false}]},"occurrenceDelineations":[{"eoSpecsDetailId":1705,"locationUseClass":{"id":1,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Not applicable","locationUseClassDescEs":"No se aplica","locationUseClassDescFr":"Sans objet","displayOrder":1},"eoSpecGroupName":null,"subtypes":"Den Site, Feeding Concentration Area, Congregation Area","inferredExtentDistance":null,"inferredExtentNotes":"Use of inferred extent probably not appropriate for this wide-ranging species.","minimumEoCriteria":"Evidence of historical presence, or current and likely recurring presence, at a given location. Such evidence minimally includes collection or reliable observation and documentation of one or more individuals in appropriate habitat where the species is presumed to be established and breeding. Alternately designated management units can be used to define occurrences.","mappingGuidance":"Key areas such as den sites, and congregation sites (where bears wait for ice or come in off sea ice) should be identified as sub EOs. Areas with bear occurrences that are not critical to bear survival (i.e. urban centers and less suitable habitat) should NOT be included.","separationBarriers":"None.","separationDistanceUnsuitableHabitatat":null,"separationDistanceSuitableHabitatat":null,"altSeparationProcedure":"Occurrences generally should be based on major occupied physiographic or ecogeographic units that are separated along areas of relatively low bear density or use. These units may be based on available sightings/records or on movements of radio-tagged individuals (e.g., Bethke et al. (1996) used satellite radio-collar locations to identify three discrete polar bear subpopulations in the western Canadian Arctic).They may also be based on the subjective determinations by biologists familiar with polar bears and their habitats, or based upon designated management units Where occupied habitat is exceptionally extensive and continuous, that habitat may be subdivided into multiple contiguous occurrences as long as that does not reduce the occurrence rank (i.e., do not split up an A occurrence into multiple occurrences that would be ranked less than A). The dividing lines should be made as much as possible along lines of limited polar bear use.","separationJustification":"Home ranges very large, generally ranging from 100 to 300 kilometers in diameter (Kolenosky 1987). Thus populations or metapopulations may occupy vast areas. For this and other wide-ranging, low density mammals, it seems most reasonable to base occurrences (and conservation efforts) on major occupied landscape features rather than on specific prescribed separation distances.","versionDate":"2020-10-30","versionAuthor":"Hammerson, G., and S. Cannings (2005), rev. Canadian EO Specifications Working Group (2020)","versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2020-11-11T02:07:03.00041Z"}],"plantCharacteristics":null,"elementManagement":{"elementGlobalId":102211,"eoManagementGroupName":null,"stewardshipOverview":null,"impacts":null,"restorationPotential":null,"siteConservationPlansConsidered":null,"managementMethods":"The following management needs were identified in \"Alaska's Western Arctic: a summary and synthesis of resources\" (Schoen and Senner 2002): Cooperative management between USFWS, Alaska Natives, and other nations, including joint international studies with Canada and Russia would facilitate more complete conservation efforts. Management should endeavor to fully implement the International Polar Bear Agreement, the Habitat Conservation Strategy for Polar Bears in Alaska (USFWS 1995a), and the pending U.S. and Russia Polar Bear Agreement. Polar Bear and human interactions should be minimized. Important habitats should be protected, including \"ice-edge\" habitats and polynyas, barrier beaches, and denning sites.<br><br><br>Harvest management should focus on protecting females (Armstrup et al. 1986). <br><br>See Herrero (1985) for prevention of attacks on humans. <br><br>See USFWS (1997) for information on application requirements and permit procedures for the issuance of permits to import trophies of polar bears sport hunted in Canada.","monitoringMethods":null,"managementProgramContacts":"Exploitation has been managed under the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears and Their Habitat, which took effect in 1976; all nations inhabited by polar bears are party to this agreement (Reeves et al. 1992). See Stirling (1991) for a discussion of protection and management regulations and agreements. See also Reeves et al. (1992) for discussion of various protection measures. <br><br>See USFWS (Federal Register, 17 July 1995, pp. 36382-36400) and USFWS (1997) for proposed and final rules allowing the importation of polar bear trophies from Canada into the U.S. and for information on management programs in Canada.","monitoringProgramContacts":"See USFWS (Federal Register, 17 July 1995) for information on population monitoring in Canada.","managementResearchPrograms":null,"managementResearchNeeds":null,"biologicalResearchNeeds":"Research is needed on movements of male bears; currently, no satisfactory method for long-term attachment of radio transmitters has been designed. Better estimates of abundance and harvest are also necessary, especially harvest counts for Russia and Greenland.<br/><br/>Relationships between polar bears, seals, and sea ice needs study (Amstrup and DeMaster 1988). Effects of industry should be assessed, particularly the effects of seismic exploration on denning bears. An evaluation of direct and indirect effects of marine oil spills should be conducted.","additionalTopics":null},"occurrenceViabilities":[{"eoRankSpecsDetailId":103731,"eoRankSpecsGroupName":null,"locationUseClass":{"id":1,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Not applicable","locationUseClassDescEs":"No se aplica","locationUseClassDescFr":"Sans objet","displayOrder":1},"excellentViability":null,"goodViability":null,"fairViability":null,"poorViability":null,"viabilityJustification":"Use the Generic Guidelines for the Application of Occurrence Ranks (2008).<br>The Key for Ranking Species Occurrences Using the Generic Approach provides a step-wise process for implementing this method.","versionDate":null,"versionAuthor":null,"versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2020-05-14T02:21:02.14552Z"}],"references":[{"id":1151804,"citation":"American Society of Mammalogists (ASM). 2025. Mammal Diversity Database (Version 1.13) [Data set]. Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10595931. Online. Available: https://www.mammaldiversity.org/","shortCitationAuthor":"American Society of Mammalogists (ASM)","shortCitationYear":2025,"referenceCode":"W25ASM01NAUS","lastModified":"2025-04-04T21:45:15.526109Z"},{"id":762954,"citation":"Amstrup, S. 1993. Human disturbances of denning polar bears in Alaska. Arctic 46:246-250.","shortCitationAuthor":"Amstrup","shortCitationYear":1993,"referenceCode":"A93AMS61HQUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:17:09.011691Z"},{"id":762957,"citation":"Amstrup, S. and C. Gardner. 1994. Polar bear maternity denning in the Beaufort Sea. J. Wildlife Management 58(1):1-10.","shortCitationAuthor":"Amstrup and Gardner","shortCitationYear":1994,"referenceCode":"A94AMS61HQUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:17:08.996092Z"},{"id":762955,"citation":"Amstrup, S.C. 1995. Movements, distribution, and population dynamics of polar bears in the Beaufort Sea. PhD dissertation. University of Alaska, Fairbanks. 299 pp.","shortCitationAuthor":"Amstrup","shortCitationYear":1995,"referenceCode":"B95AMS61HQUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:17:09.011691Z"},{"id":622926,"citation":"Amstrup, S.C. 2003. Polar bear, <i>Ursus maritimus</i>. Pages 587-610 in G.A. Feldhamer, B.C. Thompson, and J.A. Chapman, (eds) Wild mammals of North America: biology, management, and conservation. 2nd Edition. Johns Hopkins University Press.","shortCitationAuthor":"Amstrup","shortCitationYear":2003,"referenceCode":"A03AMS01NAUS","lastModified":"2025-09-05T21:53:24.667005Z"},{"id":762956,"citation":"Amstrup, S.C., and D.P.  DeMaster. 1988. Polar Bear, <i>Ursus maritimus</i>. Pp. 39-56 in: J. W. Lentfer (ed.). Selected marine mammals of Alaska: species accounts with research and management recommendations. Marine Mammal Commission, Washington, DC. 275 pp.","shortCitationAuthor":"Amstrup and DeMaster","shortCitationYear":1988,"referenceCode":"A88AMS61HQUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:17:09.011691Z"},{"id":108024,"citation":"Amstrup, S. C., and G. M. Durner. 1995. Survival rates of radio-collared female polar bears and their dependent young. Canadian Journal of Zoology 73:1312-1322.","shortCitationAuthor":"Amstrup and Durner","shortCitationYear":1995,"referenceCode":"A95AMS01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:17:09.011691Z"},{"id":141544,"citation":"Amstrup, S. C., I. Stirling, and J. W. Lentfer. 1986. Past and present status of polar bears in Alaska. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 14:241-254.","shortCitationAuthor":"Amstrup et al.","shortCitationYear":1986,"referenceCode":"A86AMS01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:17:09.011691Z"},{"id":119122,"citation":"Banfield, A. W. F. 1974. The mammals of Canada. 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Two cubs (sometimes 1 or 3) are born December-January (mid-November to mid-December along western Hudson Bay). Newborn cubs are totally helpless, among the least developed of placental mammal young, weighing 600-700 grams. Emergence from maternity dens occurs toward the end of March in Hudson and James bays, in April in Alaska. Young are weaned at approximately 24-28 months. Reproductive rate is low; adult females produce young every 3 years in most areas, in alternate years at lower Hudson Bay (Stirling 1991). Along western Hudson Bay, there was a high degree of reproductive failure; 33% of females classified as pregnant were not accompanied by cubs the following year; annual pregnancy rate of solitary females was 82-100%; pregnancy rates drop off for most females of 21 years or older, but some older females retain reproductive competency through life (Derocher et al. 1992). 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Polar bears show a preference for sea ice located over and near the continental shelf, likely due to higher biological productivity in these areas and greater accessibility to prey in near-shore shear zones and polynyas (areas of open sea surrounded by ice) compared to deep-water regions in the central polar basin; they are most abundant near the shore in shallow-water areas, and also in other areas where currents and ocean upwelling increase marine productivity and serve to keep the ice cover from becoming too consolidated in winter (see USFWS 2008 for specific sources of this information).<br/><br/>Sometimes polar bears wander inland as much as 150 km from the coast. 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Adult males weigh 300 to 800 kg and measure 200 to 285 cm in length from tip of nose to tip of tail; adult females weigh 150 to 400 kg and measure about 180 to 247 cm (DeMaster and Stirling 1981, Amstrup 2003). 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