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Data","dataSensitiveCategoryDescEs":null,"dataSensitiveCategoryDescFr":null,"nsStandardInd":true},"srank":"S4","speciesSubnational":{"elementSubnationalId":355006,"hybrid":false,"exotic":false,"native":true}},{"elementSubnationalId":306584,"subnation":{"id":61,"nameEn":"British Columbia","nameEs":"Columbia Británica","nameFr":"Colombie-Britannique","subnationCode":"BC","dnationId":38},"roundedSRank":"S5","dataSensitive":{"id":2,"dataSensitiveDescEn":"No","dataSensitiveDescEs":null,"dataSensitiveDescFr":null,"dataSensitiveCode":"N"},"dataSensitiveCategory":null,"srank":"S5","speciesSubnational":{"elementSubnationalId":306584,"hybrid":false,"exotic":false,"native":true}},{"elementSubnationalId":383780,"subnation":{"id":93,"nameEn":"Yukon Territory","nameEs":"Territorio del Yukón","nameFr":"Territoire du Yukon","subnationCode":"YT","dnationId":38},"roundedSRank":"S1","dataSensitive":{"id":2,"dataSensitiveDescEn":"No","dataSensitiveDescEs":null,"dataSensitiveDescFr":null,"dataSensitiveCode":"N"},"dataSensitiveCategory":null,"srank":"S1","speciesSubnational":{"elementSubnationalId":383780,"hybrid":false,"exotic":false,"native":true}}],"nrankReviewYear":2022,"nrank":"N5","speciesNational":{"elementNationalId":167962,"exotic":false,"native":true}}],"lastModified":"2026-10-02T21:38:15.542826Z","lastPublished":"2026-10-02T21:32:08.892226Z","promotionalDescription":null,"conceptLineageSummary":null,"nsxUrl":"/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.102132/Dryocopus_pileatus","grankAdjustmentReasons":null,"grankChangeDate":"1996-12-02","grankReviewDate":"2016-04-07","grankReasons":"Widely distributed in wooded areas of North America; population has been stable or increasing in recent decades.","grank":"G5","rankInfo":{"elementGlobalId":102132,"aooPercentGood":null,"enviromentalSpecificity":null,"intrinsicVulnerability":null,"longTermTrend":null,"numberEos":{"id":14,"numberEosDescEn":"81 to >300","numberEosDescEs":"De 81 a >300","numberEosDescFr":"De 81 à >300"},"numberGoodEos":null,"numberProtEos":{"id":7,"numberProtEosDescEn":"Few to several (1-12) occurrences appropriately protected and managed","numberProtEosDescEs":"Gradualmente hasta unos pocos casos (1 a 12) adecuadamente protegidos y controlados","numberProtEosDescFr":"De peu à quelques occurrences (de 1 à 12) protégées et contrôlées convenablement"},"popSize":{"id":33,"popSizeDescEn":"10,000 to >1,000,000 individuals","popSizeDescEs":"De 10.000 a >1.000.000 de individuos","popSizeDescFr":"De 10 000 à >1 000 000 individus"},"rangeExtent":{"id":35,"rangeExtentDescEn":">2,500,000 square km (greater than 1,000,000 square miles)","rangeExtentDescEs":">2.500.000 kilómetros cuadrados (más ","rangeExtentDescFr":">2 500 000 km carrés (plus de 1 000 000 miles carrés)"},"shortTermTrend":{"id":41,"shortTermTrendDescEn":"Relatively Stable to increase of <25%","shortTermTrendDescEs":"Relativamente estable a un aumento de <25%.","shortTermTrendDescFr":"Relativement stable à augmentation de <25 %"},"threatImpactAssigned":null,"rangeExtentComments":"RESIDENT: from southern and eastern British Columbia and southwestern Mackenzie across southern Canada to Quebec and Nova Scotia, south in Pacific states to central California, in the Rocky Mountains to Idaho and western Montana, in the central and eastern U.S. to the eastern Dakotas, Gulf Coast, and southern Florida, and west in the eastern U.S. to Iowa, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas (AOU 1983). Absent from or very limited in much of northern Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. In the Great Plains, found primarily along the eastern edge in bottomland forests along major streams. In recent years, however, there have been increasing numbers of records farther west than illustrated in Bull and Jackson (1995). In Oklahoma these include records west to Major, Caddo, Woodward, and Comanche counties, Oklahoma (Ely 1990, Baumgartner and Baumgartner 1992, McGee and Neeld 1972, Powders 1986). Also reported from Nebraska (Rapp 1953), a return after disappearance at the end of the last century. Maps in Winkler et al. (1995) show the species much farther north in western Canada than known. See also range map for Canada in Godfrey (1986). There are many extralimital records. In the east, occurs from sea level to 1500+ m in the Appalachians; in California to about 2300 m (Short 1982).","areaOfOccupancy":null,"areaOfOccupancyComments":null,"numberEosComments":"Many occurrences.","popSizeComments":"Geographic variation in abundance is linked to availability and quality of habitat. Comparative data are few, but Price et al. (in press, and in Bull and Jackson 1995) show areas of greatest numbers on U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Breeding Bird Surveys to be in the southeastern United States.","viabilityComments":null,"threatImpactComments":"Major threats are (from greatest to least): (1) conversion of forest habitats to non-forest habitats, (2) short rotation, even-age forestry, (3) monoculture forestry, (4) forest fragmentation, (5) removal of logging residue, downed wood, and pine straw that would ultimately put nutrients back into the ecosystem and provide foraging substrate, (6) lightning striking cavity/roost trees because they are the oldest, tallest trees around as a result of cutting priorities, (7) deliberate killing by humans, and (8) toxic chemicals. The first four threats are ones that have been a major concern for some time. As an example of habitat losses, nonfederal forested wetlands decreased by 5 million acres in the continental U.S. between 1982 and 1987 (Cubbage and Flather 1992). Forest fragmentation has been recognized as a major problem for many wildlife species (e.g., Wilcove 1990), but it results in habitat changes within as well as between fragments. In the southeast, smaller fragments tend to become drier (hence less conducive to conditions favorable to the pileated) and also change in plant species composition and tend towards younger successional stages (Rudis 1992). Removal of logging residue, downed wood, and pine straw from forested areas is becoming increasingly common. Considerable research directed at finding ways to maximize economic returns from the forest through such actions is being conducted by the U.S. Forest Service and others (e.g., Howard and Setzer 1989) and pine straw is currently sold on some southern forests. Removing these materials not only removes the nutrients they contain and foraging substrates for pileated woodpeckers and others, but also changes the water balance of the forest floor, making the forest a drier environment less suitable for the arthropod fauna the woodpecker is dependent on. Shooting by humans was a serious problem in the past (e.g., Sclater 1912, Stoddard 1947) and continues in some areas (Jackson, pers.obs.). The birds are an impressive and easy target and in some quarters are considered to harm trees. Becker (1942) offered one of the most detailed accounts of the disappearance of the species. Toxic chemicals can affect woodpeckers in two ways: (1) by direct poisoning and (2) by killing their arthropod prey. Careless use of agricultural chemicals and widespread control programs such as have been conducted in the past against the imported fire ant can have both affects. In addition, when woodpeckers nest in chemically treated utility poles, embryos or chicks can be killed by the fumes (Rumsey 1970).  In the eastern U.S., rat snakes (ELAPHE OBSOLETA) have been reported as nestling predators (Gress and Wiens 1983, Kilham 1959, Moore 1984). Both sharp-shinned (ACCIPITER STRIATUS; Smith 1983) and Cooper's (A. COOPERI; Michael 1921) hawks are known as potential predators on pileated woodpeckers. Erdman (pers. comm.) has found remains of adults and juveniles at goshawk (A. GENTILIS) nests in Wisconsin. The sharp-shinned hawk is certainly more of a threat to fledglings than to adults. Todd (1944) reported predation by a gray fox (UROCYON CINEREOARGENTEUS) on a ground-feeding pileated in Tennessee. Because they feed extensively on the ground, woodpeckers are vulnerable to being killed by vehicles as they approach or leave feeding sites (e.g., Eifrig 1944), an argument for keeping downed wood away from highway rights-of-ways.","shortTermTrendComments":"North American Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data indicate a significant increase of 33% in North America between 1966 and 1993, and a nonsignificant increase of 5.3% between 1984 and 1993 (Price et al. 1995). As evidenced from the historical literature, populations have fluctuated greatly over the years. They declined with clearing of the forests in the late 1800s, but increased again as forest reclaimed abandoned farms (Becker 1942, Bull and Jackson 1995, Pearsall 1976, Peterjohn 1989). Declines may have been greater in the northeastern U.S. than in the southeastern U.S. (Hoyt 1941). In Ohio, had vanished from most areas except the Allegheny Plateau and the extreme northeast, and Jones (1903) considered the species in danger of extinction. Jacobs (1933) recalled the pileated as a common woodland bird in southwestern Pennsylvania in the 1880s, but near extinction in the early 1930s. Since the late 1920s and early 1930s, when many farms were abandoned, has increased in numbers and in area occupied. Widespread death of large American elms as a result of Dutch elm disease since 1930 has resulted in increases in arthropod foods and potential nesting/roosting sites (Nicholls 1994), leading to growth and expansion of populations.  Hoyt (1963) analyzed Christmas Bird Count (CBC) data for five New England states from 1920 to 1959 and demonstrated a dramatic increase through the years. Robbins (1991) examined CBC data for Wisconsin and found a similar trend in increasing numbers from 1962 to 1986. Most authors reported noticeable increases beginning in the 1960s and continuing into the 1990s.","longTermTrendComments":null,"inventoryNeeds":null,"numberProtEosComments":"Probably there are many protected occurrences.","protectionNeeds":null,"otherConsiderations":null,"intrinsicVulnerabilityComments":null,"enviromentalSpecificityComments":null},"animalCharacteristics":{"elementGlobalId":102132,"majorHabitat":{"id":3,"majorHabitatDescEn":"Terrestrial","majorHabitatDescEs":"Terrestre","majorHabitatDescFr":"Terrestre"},"nonMigrant":true,"localMigrant":false,"longDistanceMigrant":false,"mobilityMigrationComments":"Although generally considered to be a resident species, there is evidence of some migratory movement in the northern part of its range. Hall (1983) reported a small southward movement of pileated woodpeckers in fall along the Allegheny Front of West Virginia. Sutton (1930) also noted gradual southward movement in fall through New York state. In British Columbia, the paucity of winter records in the northern half of the province indicates that many breeding individuals there move considerable distances to the south (Campbell et al. 1990).","foodHabitsComments":"Feeds extensively on carpenter ants (CAMPONOTUS spp.) and beetle larvae obtained by chiseling into standing trees, stumps, and logs; also digs into anthills on ground and eats other insects, fruits, and seeds (Hoyt 1957). In Wisconsin, Nicholls (1994) found the cerambycid wood borer, TRIGONARTHRIS, to be the major prey of pileated woodpeckers feeding at dead American elms (ULMUS AMERICANA). The preference of the birds for feeding at larger trees seemed related to the requirement of the beetles for larger trees as their habitat. There tends to be seasonal variation in the diet and foraging strategy to take advantage of available foods. More fruit and seeds are taken in late summer and fall (Conner 1979, Hoyt 1948, Sprunt and Chamberlain 1970); more excavation for arthropods is done in winter (Conner 1979, Hoyt 1948, Pfitzenmeyer 1956, Tanner 1942). Quantitative studies of diet include stomach content and scat analysis. In a range-wide, year-round study, Beal (1911) found 80 stomachs to include 22% beetles (Cerambycidae, Buprestidae, Elateridae, Lucanidae, Scarabaeidae, Carabidae), 40% ants (CAMPONOTUS sp., CREMATOGASTER sp.), 11% other insects, and 27% vegetable (numerous fruits, see Bull and Jackson 1995). Analyses of 330 scats in Oregon revealed 68% carpenter ants, 29% thatching ants (FORMICA), 0.4% beetles, and 2% other. The species is opportunistic, known to take advantage of insect outbreaks (e.g., western spruce budworm (CHORISTONEURA OCCIDENTALIS) Bull and Jackson 1995), the progression of fruiting trees in an area (Stoddard 1978), and to visit suet feeders in many areas of eastern North America (Connecticut, Hardy 1958; Mississippi, Jackson, pers. obs.; Tennessee, Spofford 1947; Georgia, Stoddard 1978; Minnesota, Tusler 1958 ). <br><br>Logs and stumps are important foraging substrates in many areas (e.g., Mannan 1984, Renken and Wiggers 1989, Schardien and Jackson 1978), but Aubry and Raley (1992) rarely observed foraging on logs in closed canopy forests of western Washington. Mannan (1984) found the pileated to forage on dead wood substrates 96% of the time.","animalPhenologyComments":null,"colonialBreeder":false,"length":42,"width":null,"weight":308,"animalPhenologies":[{"animalCagPhenologyId":101703,"animalPhenology":{"id":3,"animalPhenologyDescEn":"Diurnal","animalPhenologyDescEs":"Diurno","animalPhenologyDescFr":"Diurne","displayOrder":3},"adult":true,"immature":true}],"animalFoodHabits":[{"animalCagFoodHabitsId":103201,"foodHabits":{"id":3,"foodHabitsDescEn":"Invertivore","foodHabitsDescEs":"Invertívoro","foodHabitsDescFr":"Invertivore","displayOrder":3},"adult":true,"immature":true}]},"occurrenceDelineations":[{"eoSpecsDetailId":1242,"locationUseClass":{"id":2,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Breeding","locationUseClassDescEs":"En reproducción","locationUseClassDescFr":"Reproduction","displayOrder":2},"eoSpecGroupName":"Woodpeckers","subtypes":null,"inferredExtentDistance":0.2,"inferredExtentNotes":"Based on a conservatively small home range of 3 hectares.","minimumEoCriteria":"Evidence of historical breeding, or current and likely recurring breeding, at a given location, minimally a reliable observation of one or more breeding pairs in appropriate habitat. Be cautious about creating EOs for observations that may represent single breeding events outside the normal breeding distribution.","mappingGuidance":null,"separationBarriers":"None.","separationDistanceUnsuitableHabitatat":5.0,"separationDistanceSuitableHabitatat":5.0,"altSeparationProcedure":null,"separationJustification":"The high potential for gene flow among populations of birds separated by fairly large distances makes it difficult to circumscribe occurrences on the basis of meaningful population units without occurrences becoming too large. Hence, a moderate, standardized separation distance has been adopted for woodpeckers; it should yield occurrences that are not too spatially expansive while also accounting for the likelihood of gene flow among populations within a few kilometers of each other. <br /><br />Be careful not to separate a population's nesting areas and foraging areas as different occurrences; include them in the same occurrence even if they are more than 5 km apart.<br /><br />Territories generally smaller than non-breeding home ranges. Territories/home ranges: Red-headed Woodpecker, summer territories 3.1-8.5 hectares (Venables and Collopy 1989), winter territories smaller (0.17 hectare to 1 hectare (Williams and Batzli 1979, Venables and Collopy 1989, Moskovits 1978); Lewis's Woodpecker, 1.0-6.0 hectares (Thomas et al. 1979); Golden-fronted Woodpecker, summer ranges larger than breeding territories, ranging from 15.4 to 41.7 hectares (average 24.9, Husak 1997); Gila Woodpecker, pair territories ranged from 4.45 to 10.0 hectares (n = 5) (Edwards and Schnell 2000); Nuttall's Woodpecker, about 65 hectares (0.8 kilometers diameter; Miller and Bock 1972); Hairy Woodpecker: breeding territories averaged 2.8 hectares, range 2.4 to 3.2 hectares (Lawrence 1967); Black-backed Woodpecker, home ranges 61-328 hectares (Goggans et al. 1988, Lisi 1988, Dixon and Saab 2000); White-headed Woodpecker, mean home ranges 104 and 212 hectares on old-growth sites and 321 and 342 hectares on fragmented sites (Dixon 1995a,b); Williamson's Sapsucker, home ranges 4-9 hectares (Crockett 1975). <br /><br />Fidelity to breeding site: high in Red-headed Woodpeckers--15 of 45 banded adults returned to vicinity following year (Ingold 1991); one adult moved 1.04 kilometers between breeding seasons (Belson 1998).","versionDate":"2004-09-10","versionAuthor":"Cannings, S., and G. Hammerson","versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2020-09-05T01:18:35.567325Z"},{"eoSpecsDetailId":156468,"locationUseClass":{"id":3,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Nonbreeding","locationUseClassDescEs":"No reproducción","locationUseClassDescFr":"Non-reproduction","displayOrder":3},"eoSpecGroupName":"Woodpeckers","subtypes":null,"inferredExtentDistance":null,"inferredExtentNotes":null,"minimumEoCriteria":"Evidence of recurring presence of non-breeding birds (including historical) and potential recurring presence at a given location. Be cautious about creating EOs for observations that may represent single events.","mappingGuidance":null,"separationBarriers":"None.","separationDistanceUnsuitableHabitatat":5.0,"separationDistanceSuitableHabitatat":5.0,"altSeparationProcedure":null,"separationJustification":"The high potential for gene flow among populations of birds separated by fairly large distances makes it difficult to circumscribe occurrences on the basis of meaningful population units without occurrences becoming too large. Hence, a moderate, standardized separation distance has been adopted for woodpeckers; it should yield occurrences that are not too spatially expansive while also accounting for the likelihood of gene flow among populations within a few kilometers of each other.","versionDate":"2020-08-27","versionAuthor":"Ormes, M. (2020)","versionNotes":"Needs expert review, based on the breeding LUC.","lastModified":"2020-09-05T01:18:35.567325Z"},{"eoSpecsDetailId":156469,"locationUseClass":{"id":14,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Undetermined","locationUseClassDescEs":"Indeterminado","locationUseClassDescFr":"Indéterminé","displayOrder":99},"eoSpecGroupName":"Woodpeckers","subtypes":null,"inferredExtentDistance":null,"inferredExtentNotes":null,"minimumEoCriteria":"An area occupied either historically or at present by a persisting or recurring population. Be cautious about creating EOs for observations that may represent single events.","mappingGuidance":null,"separationBarriers":"None","separationDistanceUnsuitableHabitatat":5.0,"separationDistanceSuitableHabitatat":5.0,"altSeparationProcedure":null,"separationJustification":"The high potential for gene flow among populations of birds separated by fairly large distances makes it difficult to circumscribe occurrences on the basis of meaningful population units without occurrences becoming too large. Hence, a moderate, standardized separation distance has been adopted for woodpeckers; it should yield occurrences that are not too spatially expansive while also accounting for the likelihood of gene flow among populations within a few kilometers of each other.","versionDate":"2020-08-27","versionAuthor":"Ormes, M. (2020)","versionNotes":"Needs expert review, this is based on the breeding LUC.","lastModified":"2020-09-05T01:18:35.567325Z"}],"plantCharacteristics":null,"elementManagement":{"elementGlobalId":102132,"eoManagementGroupName":null,"stewardshipOverview":"The primary management concern is the provision of required forest habitats (Bull and Jackson 1995). These include both deciduous and coniferous forests, the most important characteristics of the forests being that they are extensive, include mature trees and snags, a more or less open forest floor littered with decaying wood, and a relatively humid environment that promotes fungal decay and the ant, termite, and beetle populations on which these birds feed. Streamside forests are particularly important because of the more humid environment they create and the linear and dendritic corridors they provide for dispersal of the birds into new areas. Successful management in an area will require maintenance of old growth forest with dense canopy cover, especially broad corridors along streams and lakes.","impacts":"Pileateds are a serious problem in some cavity clusters of the endangered red-cockaded woodpecker (PICOIDES BOREALIS) in the southeastern United States (Jackson 1978, 1994). The pileated enlarges red-cockaded woodpecker cavities, making them unsuitable for use by the endangered species. Apparently this action is usually in search of food, rather than appropriation of the cavity as a nest or roost site, although a pileated occasionally uses an enlarged cavity for roosting. Also thought to have harassed or competed with ivory-billed woodpeckers (Short and Horne 1990, Tanner 1942). <br><br>From an ecosystem management perspective, woodpeckers could have a negative impact on other species in that it may not be a good indicator of old growth forest (as it is being used) because it will forage in younger forests (Mellen et al. 1992). On the positive side, old pileated cavities and enlarged red-cockaded woodpecker cavities provide nesting sites for squirrels (SCIURUS spp.), wood ducks (AIX SPONSA), eastern screech owls (OTUS ASIO), and many other vertebrate and invertebrate species. Many of the prey of the pileated are insects of negative economic importance.","restorationPotential":"So long as appropriate areas of old growth forest are maintained, the potential for restoration of woodpecker populations is high. Introduction of birds to areas where they have been extirpated, such as Prince Edward Island (Godfrey 1986), may be possible using techniques developed by DeFazio et al. (1987) for red-cockaded woodpeckers. Captive breeding is a possibility, but has not been accomplished, nor is it an acceptable alternative to habitat maintenance. Several woodpeckers have been maintained in captivity, some for several years (Hoyt 1950, Rumsey 1968), thus at least the knowledge is available for short-term maintenance of birds that might be used in translocation efforts.","siteConservationPlansConsidered":"Preserves should be designed differently for different geographic regions and habitat types. For example, in the eastern and southeastern U.S., every opportunity should be taken to link preserves to corridors of forest habitat along major rivers and streams. In montane areas of the west, preserves would be best along rivers and streams, but also on the windward rather than on the leeward sides of mountains because of the higher humidity (hence greater decay, hence greater food and nest site potential) associated with windward sites. <br><br>In various areas, reported as requiring forest patch sizes of at least 20-70 ha, unless other forested areas are nearby (Bushman and Therres 1988). Dispersal distances need to be known and considered when planning any preserve or management area, and data from birds in similar habitats within the region should be used for planning purposes. Dispersal data are scant at present, based on recoveries of banded birds in New York (32 km from site of banding) and Alberta (16 km), and from detailed studies of banded and radio-equipped birds in Oregon in which birds nested from 0.7 to 8.7 km from their natal site (Bull and Jackson 1995). <br><br>No estimates have been made of minimum viable population size for this species, nor for that matter have populations been carefully defined.","managementMethods":"Short and Horne (1990) listed five factors upon which conservation of European woodpeckers depends. These are a minimum starting point for the conservation of the pileated. The factors are: 1. Maintenance of wooded areas in which dead and dying trees are allowed to remain. 2. Retention of dead or dying stubs of some live trees. 3. Retention of dying trees in open areas of parkland, golf courses and woodland. 4. Management of wet forests to allow decay of rotting trees (it should be remembered that dying trees are part of the ecosystem, and their integration into new growth as humus is important to natural forest regeneration). 5. Selective cutting rather than clear-cutting of managed forests. <br><br>Optimal forest management practices for the mid-Atlantic states include those that maintain a density of around 24 snags per 40 ha; suitable nest sites can be provided by leaving uncut filter strips along streams or by maintaining dense stands where long-continued competition weakens sawtimber trees (Bushman and Therres 1988). Removal of thinning slash or logging debris (foraging substrates) reduces habitat quality (Renken and Wiggers 1989). <br><br>The woodpecker was selected as a management indicator of old growth forest ecosystems for some U.S. Forest Service regions. On Pacific Northwest forests, an emphasis has been placed on leaving > 5 standing dead trees (snags) per ha as potential nest and roost sites and on leaving 120 ha patches of older forests (Brown 1985, Bull and Jackson 1995, Thomas et al. 1979). Most of 100 woodpecker management areas were occupied by the species on five National Forest ranger districts in Oregon and Washington (Bull and Jackson 1995). <br><br>Mellen et al. (1992) questioned the adequacy of Forest Service management guidelines because home range data were based on density estimates. Based on home range and habitat use data from the Pacific Northwest, Bull and Holthausen (1993) recommended increasing the size of management areas (to 364 ha) and the number of management areas per forest. Composition of management areas should be about 75% in grand fir (ABIES GRANDIS) type, 25% old growth, the remainder mature stands; at least 50% of the stands should have > 60% canopy cover, at least 40% should remain unlogged, and the remainder should be selectively logged to leave mature stands after logging. Because of the importance of downed logs as foraging sites, Bull and Holthausen also recommended leaving > 100 logs (preferably > 38 cm diameter) per ha. To provide for nest and roost sites and foraging, they also recommended leaving > 8 snags per ha with a preference for snags > 51 cm dbh. <br><br>See Mitchell (1988) for specifications for the construction and placement of nest boxes.","monitoringMethods":"Monitoring of populations should take place at two levels: (1) monitoring of the bird itself through banding and recapture studies, further telemetry work, nest documentation, call and drumming censuses, and use of continuing census efforts such as the BBS and CBC; and (2) monitoring of the habitat, both within and across regions. The Continuous Forest Inventory system of the U.S. Forest Service is one such monitoring mechanism, but it may not be specific enough to allow understanding of what is happening to habitats. Other approaches, some universal, some regional, some local, need to be employed. <br><br>Both types of monitoring are needed. Because the pileated is a relatively long-lived and wide-ranging species, its habitat could be adversely affected without an immediate recognition of a population crisis. If habitat parameters being monitored do not include all factors crucial to the pileated's existence, habitat monitoring alone could be futile. There is no complete understanding of the complexity of the interactions of the pileated with other components of the ecosystems in which it occurs. Bull et al. (1990) outlined approaches for monitoring on specific forests.","managementProgramContacts":"Contact: E.L. Bull, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Forestry and Range Sciences Laboratory, 1401 Gekeler Lane, La Grande, OR 97850.","monitoringProgramContacts":"Contact: E.L. Bull, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Forestry and Range Sciences Laboratory, 1401 Gekeler Lane, La Grande, OR 97850.","managementResearchPrograms":"Some emphasis has been placed on management-related research, especially in Oregon (e.g., Bull 1987, Bull and Holthausen 1993, Bull et al. 1990, Bull and Meslow 1977) and Missouri (e.g., Brawn et al. 1984, Renken and Wiggers 1989). Possible contacts include: <br><br>E.L. Bull, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Forestry and Range Sciences Laboratory, 1401 Gekeler Lane, La Grande, OR 97850. <br><br>R.N. Conner, Southern Forest Experiment Station, Box 7600 SFA Station, Nacogdoches, TX 75962. Phone: 409-569-7981.","managementResearchNeeds":"1. Greater knowledge is needed regarding the relationship between arthropod habitat requirements and those of the woodpecker. Although studies have identified habitat parameters needed by the woodpecker, the nature and significance of phenological variation in key habitat components has not been adequately addressed. For example, what factors influence the longevity of a snag that is a potential cavity or food tree? What is the nature of the progression of decay and invasion by prey of the woodpecker? <br><br>2. How is nesting success and fledgling weight/health related to habitat quality? How do nestling development features and phenology found by Hoyt (1944) compare across the range of the species and the range of habitats in which the bird is found? <br><br>3. How many feeding trips per day are made to nestlings of various ages? How far do parents travel in habitats of different types to find food for nestlings? <br><br>4. To what extent could nest trees be created by killing large trees and then topping them to leave a cross section exposed at the top to encourage fungal decay? [This has been done experimentally in Oregon with explosives (Bull et al. 1981).] <br><br>5. Could artificial roost/nest cavities be created following the approach taken for red-cockaded woodpeckers (Copeyon 1990, Allen 1991)? <br><br>6. At what age do fledglings become independent of parents? How does this vary geographically, seasonally, or with habitat quality? Does survival and success of young vary with age at independence? <br><br>7. What factors influence successful dispersal of young? How far will they normally disperse? <br><br>8. Can fledglings be successfully introduced to isolated areas with small or no populations using techniques such as those employed for the red-cockaded woodpecker (DeFazio et al. 1987)? <br><br>9. How genetically variable is the species? To what extent is forest fragmentation contributing to genetic fixation within populations? <br><br>10. Numerous studies and anecdotal materials indicate that the diet emphasizes CAMPONOTUS ants and beetle larvae, with the seasonal addition of fruit and a wide array of foods when opportunity appears. However, even the most detailed of these studies do not allow good comparisons to be made and do not allow examination of diets of males versus females, adults versus juveniles, or the potential for significant geographic variation. Nor have studies of diet been linked to habitat quality. Further work is needed to clarify dietary needs and variation and relationships of diet quality to habitat quality and home range. <br><br>11. Why do pileateds enlarge the cavities of red-cockaded woodpeckers? Answers to date have been speculative and offer little in the way of behavioral observations.","biologicalResearchNeeds":"1. While the incubation period of the species is given as 18 days by several authors (Bendire 1895, Burns 1915, Hoyt 1944, Harris 1982), these authors seem to be quoting one another with little hard data. Kilham (1979) gives the incubation period as 15-16 days. Since the incubation period of the closely related black woodpecker (DRYOCOPUS MARTIUS) is given as 12-14 days (Cramp 1985), further study with better documentation seems to be needed. <br><br>2. Why do pileated woodpeckers excavate on utility poles and houses, and how can these actions be deterred? <br><br>3. Several species of woodpeckers have been shown to have sex-specific foraging niches. Is this true for pileateds? <br><br>4. What is the key species role of the pileated? What other species are dependent on it for nest/roost cavities or for food resources. 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On warm days of February and early March in the southeastern U.S. and March through early April in northern areas there is an increase in vocalizations and drumming associated with pair formation and increased territoriality. Vocalizations and drumming take place with greatest frequency in early morning and late afternoon (Hoyt 1941). Courtship behavior is described in detail by Kilham (1979, 1983), with additional details and circumstances by Arthur (1934), Hoyt (1944), and Oberman (1989). Nest construction, egg-laying, hatching, and fledging are also progressively later from south to north (Bull and Jackson 1995) and likely from lower to higher altitudes (at least in California, Harris 1982). <br><br>Early egg dates in the southern U.S. are in early March; late egg dates, from northern areas, are in mid-June. Similarly, nestlings have been found from mid-May in the southeast to mid-July in the north (Bull and Jackson 1995, Peterjohn 1989). Young remain with adults at least through late summer or early fall. Clutch size is usually 3-4 throughout the range (Bent 1939, Christy 1939); a clutch of 6 was reported by Audubon and Chevalier (1842). Incubation takes 15-19 days (Bendire 1895, Hoyt 1944, Kilham 1979), by both sexes. Young are tended by both parents, leave nest at 22-26 days (Hoyt 1944, Bull and Jackson 1995). <br><br>Longevity records thus far include several birds surviving for 9 years (Bull and Jackson 1995, Bull and Meslow 1988, Hoyt and Hoyt 1951, Hoyt 1952). However, through 1981, there had only been 15 recoveries from a total of 670 banded (Clapp et al. 1983), thus it is quite possible that this species could live much longer.","ecologyComments":"In Missouri, population density varied from 0.5 to 4.1 territories per 100 ha, with the highest densities of birds positively correlated with increasing area of old growth bottom land forest, increasing canopy closure, and increasing density of snags greater than 0.54 cm dbh (Renken and Wiggers 1993). In western Oregon, mature forests support higher populations than do younger forests (Mannan et al. 1980). <br><br>In Missouri, territory sizes ranged from 53-160 ha, and territory size decreased with increasing percent forest overstory canopy cover, increasing saw timber cover, and log and stump volume (Renken and Wiggers 1989). In conifer forests of northeastern Oregon, home range was 128-240 ha (Bull and Meslow 1977). Home range in New York varied in radius from 4.8 to 6.4 km in a mixed conifer-hardwood forest (Hoyt 1957) [Note: these data do not appear in the cited Hoyt 1957].<br><br>Parasites have rarely been reported, but include the following. Humpbacked flies (Phoridae), were found on nestlings in New York (Hoyt 1957). TOUCANECTES DRYOCOPI, a subcutaneous mite, was found in the head and neck region of Louisiana birds (Pence 1971). In Oregon nests, Wilson and Bull (1977) found DERMANYSSUS GALLINOIDES, a mite (Mesostigmata: Laelaptoidea) and CARNUS HEMAPTERUS, and a fly (Diptera: Milichiidae). Collins et al. (1966) identified two blood parasites, PLASMODIUM sp. and HAEMOPROTEUS sp. from a South Carolina bird. Nickol (1969) examined three Louisiana pileateds for Acanthocephala, but found none.","habitatComments":"Dense deciduous (favored in southeast), coniferous (favored in north, northwest and west), or mixed forest, open woodland, second growth, and (locally) parks and wooded residential areas of towns. Prefers woods with a tall closed canopy and a high basal area. Most often in areas of extensive forest or minimal isolation from extensive forest. Uses a minimum of 4 cavities per year (only one for raising brood). <br><br>In Missouri, abundance increased with area covered with bottomland forest, density of trees at least 30 cm dbh, and density of snags at least 54 cm dbh (Renken and Wiggers 1993). In West Virginia found in all forest types, at all elevations, but less common in spruce-northern hardwoods forest and most common in mixed hardwood forest (Hall 1983). <br><br>Nests are in cavities excavated by both sexes usually in dead stubs in shaded places; cavity entrance averages about 14 m above ground (see photos and descriptions in Harrison 1975, 1979). Usually digs a new hole for each year's brood, but the same cavity may be used for several years. Nest tree species and size varies among regions and even within regions depending on site and availability. In southern British Columbia, preferred nest sites were in live aspen with heartwood decay, in trees larger than 40 cm dbh (Harestad and Keisker 1989). In northwest Montana, most of 54 nest trees were large western larch (LARIX OCCIDENTALIS) and nest trees averaged 74.9 cm dbh (McClelland 1979). In northeast Oregon, 75% of nest trees were ponderosa pine (PINUS PONDEROSA) and mean dbh of nest trees was 84 cm (Bull 1987). In western Oregon, 73% of nest trees were Douglas-fir (PSEUDOTSUGA MENZIESII) and nest trees averaged 69 cm dbh (Mellen 1987). In Virginia, 28% of nest trees were hickory (CARYA spp.), 22% red oak (QUERCUS RUBRA), 17% chestnut oak (Q. PRINUS) and nest trees averaged 54.6 cm dbh (Conner et al. 1975). Most studies report nests 5-17 m above ground in wood softened by fungal rot, in trees usually 100-180 years old, over 51 cm DBH, 12-21 m tall, and often near permanent water (Bushman and Therres 1988).","generalDescription":"A crested, black woodpecker with wing span of about 70 cm. More or less uniformly black body with a white line extending down the neck from the bill to underwing area; white throat and line above the eye; black through the eye. Male with a vivid red crest extending from the bill to the nape and a red moustache mark extending from the bill. Female slightly smaller than male and with gray to brown forehead, red crest, and no red moustache mark. In all sex and age groups, a few gray-white bars can be found on the flanks. In flight, wings show black leading and trailing edges and white near the center of the wing close to the body. Juveniles have duller, more loosely textured feathers; primary 10 is longer, broader, and less pointed. Details and colored photo in Bull and Jackson (1995). Nestlings naked at hatching. <br><br>EGGS: glossy white. See illustration and chick description in Harrison 1978. <br><br>VOCALIZATIONS: a loud, characteristic kuk-kuk-kuk-kuk; drumming a deep resonant roll that carries a kilometer or more.","diagnosticCharacteristics":"Except for the probably extinct ivory-billed woodpecker (CAMPEPHILUS PRINCIPALIS) of the southeastern United States and imperial woodpecker (C. 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