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W., and R. L. Burke, editors. 1989. Crocodilian, tuatara, and turtle species of the world: a taxonomic and geographic reference. Association of Systematics Collections, Washington, D.C. 216 pp.","conceptName":"<i>Terrapene carolina</i>","taxonomicComments":"Six living subspecies have previously been recognized (<i>bauri, carolina</i>, <i>mexicana</i>, <i>major</i>, <i>triunguis</i>, and <i>yucatana</i>) (Ernst and McBreen 1991). Turtle Taxonomy Working Group (2021) recognizes three subspecies: <i>T. c. carolina</i>, <i>T. c. bauri</i> (or <i>T. bauri</i>), and <i>T. c. major</i>. Following Butler et al. (2011), Crother (2012, 2017) elevated <i>bauri</i> to full species status and recognize two subspecies:<i> T. c. carolina</i> and <i>T. c. triunguis</i>. Martin et al. (2012) concluded that <i>triunguis </i>is paraphyletic with <i>T. carolina</i> and <i>T. ornata</i> and therefore should be a full species (as <i>mexicana</i>), with <i>triunguis</i>, <i>mexicana</i>, and <i>yucatana </i>as subspecies within it. However, Fritz and Havaš (2014) argued against the recognition of <i>mexicana </i>as a separate species because of demonstrated genetic introgression between <i>triunguis </i>and <i>carolina</i>. Martin et al. (2014) reaffirmed their support for recognizing <i>mexicana </i>and <i>carolina </i>as separate species. Some authors (e.g., Guyer et al. 2015, and Powell et al. 2016) have recognized <i>triunguis </i>as a separate species without discussion of all the taxa in this complex. Pending more complete genetic and geographic sampling of this complex, Crother (2017) retain <i>triunguis </i>as a subspecies of <i>carolina</i>. Turtle Taxonomy Working Group (2021), while including <i>T. c. triunguis</i> and <i>T. m. triunguis</i> as alternative arrangements, have tentatively recognized <i>T. triunguis</i> as a separate species, rather than as a subspecies of either <i>carolina </i>or <i>mexicana</i>.","roundedGRank":"G5","conservationStatusFactorsEditionDate":"2014-02-05","conservationStatusFactorsEditionAuthors":"Jackson, D. R. (2014); Hammerson, G. 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It can be locally abundant in many areas though has almost certainly declined in some as a result of habitat loss and fragmentation as well as overcollecting for the pet trade.  Overall the species is secure because of the large number of viable occurrences, but nevertheless it is of conservation concern in some regions.","grank":"G5","rankInfo":{"elementGlobalId":100312,"aooPercentGood":null,"enviromentalSpecificity":{"id":8,"enviromentalSpecificityDescEn":"Moderate.  Generalist or community with some key requirements scarce.","enviromentalSpecificityDescEs":"Moderado.  Generalista o comunidad con algunos requisitos claves escasos.","enviromentalSpecificityDescFr":"Modéré. 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Much of the decline can be attributed to loss or degradation of habitats.","inventoryNeeds":"Determine number, location, and status of extant occurrences.  Record data in conjunction with other biotic surveys, especially on conservation lands.","numberProtEosComments":"However, even the best protection and management do not eliminate the risk of pathogenic diseases.","protectionNeeds":"Provide legal protection in perpetuity for as much appropriate terrestrial habitat as possible within the range of the species.  Inclusion of wetlands is desirable.","otherConsiderations":null,"intrinsicVulnerabilityComments":"Populations are susceptible to pathogenic diseases.  The species is characterized by late maturity and low fecundity and recruitment, as are most turtles.","enviromentalSpecificityComments":"Habitats vary across range, though often associated with mesic woodlands."},"animalCharacteristics":{"elementGlobalId":100312,"majorHabitat":{"id":3,"majorHabitatDescEn":"Terrestrial","majorHabitatDescEs":"Terrestre","majorHabitatDescFr":"Terrestre"},"nonMigrant":true,"localMigrant":false,"longDistanceMigrant":false,"mobilityMigrationComments":"In Maryland, females moved to nesting areas that were several hundred meters from the center of their bottomland non-nesting range (Stickel 1989).","foodHabitsComments":"Young are primarily invertivorous (not noted in North Carolina; Stuart and Miller 1987); adults are opportunistic omnivores, eating various plants (including fruits), fungi, snails and other invertebrates, carrion, and rarely small vertebrates.","animalPhenologyComments":"Activity occurs during daylight hours in spring and fall, but in hot summer weather most activity is in the morning and after rains. Box turtles are generally inactive during cold winter weather. In Maryland, began hibernation mid- to late October, ended mid-March to early May (Stickel 1989). In central Florida, more individuals were found in the fall than in the spring (Pilgrim et al. 1997).","colonialBreeder":false,"length":22,"width":null,"weight":null,"animalPhenologies":[{"animalCagPhenologyId":100728,"animalPhenology":{"id":1,"animalPhenologyDescEn":"Hibernates/aestivates","animalPhenologyDescEs":"Hibernación/Estivación","animalPhenologyDescFr":"Hiberne/estive","displayOrder":1},"adult":true,"immature":true},{"animalCagPhenologyId":100729,"animalPhenology":{"id":3,"animalPhenologyDescEn":"Diurnal","animalPhenologyDescEs":"Diurno","animalPhenologyDescFr":"Diurne","displayOrder":3},"adult":true,"immature":true}],"animalFoodHabits":[{"animalCagFoodHabitsId":101488,"foodHabits":{"id":3,"foodHabitsDescEn":"Invertivore","foodHabitsDescEs":"Invertívoro","foodHabitsDescFr":"Invertivore","displayOrder":3},"adult":true,"immature":true},{"animalCagFoodHabitsId":101489,"foodHabits":{"id":4,"foodHabitsDescEn":"Herbivore","foodHabitsDescEs":"Herbívoro","foodHabitsDescFr":"Herbivore","displayOrder":4},"adult":true,"immature":true},{"animalCagFoodHabitsId":101490,"foodHabits":{"id":6,"foodHabitsDescEn":"Frugivore","foodHabitsDescEs":"Frugívoro","foodHabitsDescFr":"Frugivore","displayOrder":6},"adult":true,"immature":true}]},"occurrenceDelineations":[{"eoSpecsDetailId":1681,"locationUseClass":{"id":1,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Not applicable","locationUseClassDescEs":"No se aplica","locationUseClassDescFr":"Sans objet","displayOrder":1},"eoSpecGroupName":null,"subtypes":null,"inferredExtentDistance":0.5,"inferredExtentNotes":null,"minimumEoCriteria":"Occurrences are based on evidence of historical presence, or current and likely recurring presence, at a given location. Such evidence minimally includes collection or reliable observation and documentation of one or more individuals (including eggs) in or near appropriate habitat where the species is presumed to be established and  breeding.","mappingGuidance":null,"separationBarriers":"Busy highway or highway with obstructions such that turtles rarely if ever cross successfully; untraversable topography (e.g., cliff); major river, lake, pond, or deep marsh; urbanized area dominated by buildings and pavement.","separationDistanceUnsuitableHabitatat":1.0,"separationDistanceSuitableHabitatat":5.0,"altSeparationProcedure":null,"separationJustification":"Though box turtles may enter and cross small or shallow wetlands, major bodies of deep water normally serve as barriers. <br><br>Home ranges typically are small. Home range diameter was estimated at about 100-230 m in several studies (reviewed by Ernst et al. 1994). Adult home range was 2 ha or less in Missouri, averaged slightly more than 1 ha in Maryland and did not change much over several years (Stickel 1989). Over 25 years, the home ranges of 22 individuals in Missouri ranged from 2.2 to 10.6 ha (Schwartz and Schwartz 1991). A 10.6-ha home range, if elliptically elongate, would be roughly 0.5 km in maximum dimension.  <br><br>In Maryland, females moved from bottomlands to lay eggs in drier and warmer upland sites; they moved several hundred meters from the center of the bottomland range; individuals used the same nesting area in different years (Stickel 1989). <br><br>These data might suggest a relatively small separation distance. However, more extensive movements by transients, promoting gene flow between adjacent populations, and good homing by turtles displaced up to 1.2 km but poor or no homing after displacements of 1.6 km or more (see Ernst et al. 1994), suggest that the separation distance for suitable habitat should be fairly large. It seems unlikely that two locations separated by a gap of less than several kilometers of suitable habitat would represent independent occurrences over the long term.","versionDate":"2004-09-10","versionAuthor":"Hammerson, G.","versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:12:32.085702Z"}],"plantCharacteristics":null,"elementManagement":{"elementGlobalId":100312,"eoManagementGroupName":null,"stewardshipOverview":null,"impacts":null,"restorationPotential":null,"siteConservationPlansConsidered":null,"managementMethods":"Prescribed burning should not include hot summer burns--may kill turtles.","monitoringMethods":null,"managementProgramContacts":null,"monitoringProgramContacts":null,"managementResearchPrograms":null,"managementResearchNeeds":null,"biologicalResearchNeeds":"Study persistence of small populations and the effects of preserve size and population size on long-term viability of local populations.  All incidences of mass mortality should be studied closely to determine cause.  Greater research is needed with pathogenic diseases that can affect this turtle, including mean of reducing their negative effects.","additionalTopics":null},"occurrenceViabilities":[{"eoRankSpecsDetailId":101893,"eoRankSpecsGroupName":null,"locationUseClass":{"id":1,"locationUseClassDescEn":"Not applicable","locationUseClassDescEs":"No se aplica","locationUseClassDescFr":"Sans objet","displayOrder":1},"excellentViability":null,"goodViability":null,"fairViability":null,"poorViability":null,"viabilityJustification":"Use the Generic Guidelines for the Application of Occurrence Ranks (2008).<br>The Key for Ranking Species Occurrences Using the Generic Approach provides a step-wise process for implementing this method.","versionDate":null,"versionAuthor":null,"versionNotes":null,"lastModified":"2020-05-14T02:15:37.062496Z"}],"references":[{"id":134853,"citation":"Barbour, R. W. 1971. 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Chelonian Research Monographs 8:1–472. doi: 10.3854/crm.8.checklist.atlas.v9.2021.","shortCitationAuthor":"TTWG","shortCitationYear":2021,"referenceCode":"B21TTW01NAUS","lastModified":"2022-07-02T00:44:58.794768Z"},{"id":722662,"citation":"Turtle Taxonomy Working Group [van Dijk, P.P., Iverson, J.B., Shaffer, H.B., Bour, R., and Rhodin, A.G.J.]. 2012. Turtles of the world, 2012 update: annotated checklist of taxonomy, synonymy, distribution, and conservation status. In: Rhodin, A.G.J., Pritchard, P.C.H., van Dijk, P.P., Saumure, R.A., Buhlmann, K.A., Iverson, J.B., and Mittermeier, R.A. (Eds.). Conservation Biology of Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises: A Compilation Project of the IUCN/SSC Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group. Chelonian Research Monographs No. 5:000.243-000.328. Online. Available: www.iucn-tftsg.org/cbftt/.","shortCitationAuthor":"van Dijk et al.","shortCitationYear":2012,"referenceCode":"B12VAN01EHUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T14:38:20.126743Z"},{"id":121131,"citation":"Ward, J. P. 1980. Comparative cranial morphology of the freshwater turtle subfamily Emydinae: an analysis of the feeding mechanisms and systematics. Ph.D. dissertation, North Carolina State Univ., Raleigh.","shortCitationAuthor":"Ward","shortCitationYear":1980,"referenceCode":"U80WAR01NAUS","lastModified":"2020-02-25T18:12:32.085702Z"},{"id":765399,"citation":"Williams, E. C., Jr., and W. S. Parker. 1987. A long-term study of a box turtle (<i>Terrapene </i><i>carolina</i>) population at Allee Memorial Woods, Indiana, with emphasis on survivorship. Herpetologica 43:328-335.","shortCitationAuthor":"Williams and Parker","shortCitationYear":1987,"referenceCode":"A87WIL63HQUS","lastModified":"2022-01-11T02:15:47.338162Z"}],"otherCommonNames":[{"id":145229,"name":"eastern box turtle","language":"EN"},{"id":135346,"name":"Tortue boîte","language":"FR"},{"id":142992,"name":"Tortue boîte de l'Est","language":"FR"},{"id":135345,"name":"Tortue tabatière","language":"FR"}],"speciesGlobal":{"elementGlobalId":100312,"cites":{"id":2,"citesDescEn":"Appendix II","citesDescEs":"Apéndice II","citesDescFr":"Annexe II"},"cosewic":{"id":2,"cosewicDescEn":"Extirpated","cosewicDescEs":"Extirpado","cosewicDescFr":"Disparue au Canada","cosewicCode":"XT"},"fwsRegion":null,"genusSize":{"id":2,"genusSizeDescEn":"Very small genus","genusSizeDescEs":"Un género muy pequeño","genusSizeDescFr":"Très petit genre"},"jurisEndem":{"id":5,"jurisEndemDescEn":"occurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations","jurisEndemDescEs":"Se encuentra en varias naciones (de manera regular, como un taxón nativo)","jurisEndemDescFr":"Se trouve dans plusieurs nations (de façon régulière, tel un taxon indigène)"},"nomenclaturallyEst":null,"usesa":null,"informalTaxonomy":{"informalTaxonomyId":8,"level1":"Animals","level2":"Vertebrates","level3":"Turtles","level":3,"hasChildren":false,"parentId":2,"distributionStatus":"complete","displayOrder":1110},"parentSpecies":null,"infraspecies":false,"kingdom":"Animalia","phylum":"Craniata","taxclass":"Chelonia","taxorder":"Testudines","family":"Emydidae","genus":"Terrapene","americanFisheriesStatus":null,"americanFisheriesStatusDate":null,"saraStatus":"Extirpated/Disparue du pays","saraStatusDate":"2019-02-25","cosewicDate":"2014-11-28","interpretedCosewic":null,"cosewicComments":"Reason for Designation: This turtle occurred historically in Ontario based on archeological evidence and Aboriginal Traditional Knowledge. Habitat modification has been extensive and the species is no longer extant. Considerable search effort has documented fewer than 10 individuals in Ontario, but these individuals all represent released captive individuals from unknown sources and are not considered part of the former Canadian population.<br/><br/>Status History: Species considered in May 2002 and placed in the Data Deficient category. Status re-examined and designated Extirpated in November 2014.","usesaDate":null,"interpretedUsesa":null,"usesaComments":null,"completeDistribution":true,"synonyms":[],"infraspeciesList":[{"infraspeciesId":102221,"uniqueId":"ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.102221","formattedScientificName":"<i>Terrapene carolina triunguis</i>","scientificName":"Terrapene carolina triunguis","primaryCommonName":"Three-toed Box Turtle","nsxUrl":"/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.102221/Terrapene_carolina_triunguis"},{"infraspeciesId":105431,"uniqueId":"ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.105431","formattedScientificName":"<i>Terrapene carolina bauri</i>","scientificName":"Terrapene carolina bauri","primaryCommonName":"Florida Box Turtle","nsxUrl":"/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.105431/Terrapene_carolina_bauri"},{"infraspeciesId":106512,"uniqueId":"ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.106512","formattedScientificName":"<i>Terrapene carolina major</i>","scientificName":"Terrapene carolina major","primaryCommonName":"Gulf Coast Box Turtle","nsxUrl":"/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.106512/Terrapene_carolina_major"},{"infraspeciesId":103999,"uniqueId":"ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.103999","formattedScientificName":"<i>Terrapene carolina carolina</i>","scientificName":"Terrapene carolina carolina","primaryCommonName":"Woodland Box Turtle","nsxUrl":"/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.103999/Terrapene_carolina_carolina"}],"ebarId":null,"ebarCanadianScope":false,"ebarGlobalScope":false,"ebarKbaGroup":"Amphibians and Reptiles","caGeneralStatusId":"GS000814"},"speciesCharacteristics":{"elementGlobalId":100312,"reproductionComments":"Courtship and mating may occur at various times throughout the warmer months. The egg-laying period in most of the range extends from May through July (mainly June in Maryland, primarily June-July in Louisiana). Adult females lay one or more clutches of usually 1-8 eggs. In Louisiana, individual females generally laid 3-4 (maximum 6) clutches averaging 3-4 eggs per clutch, May-August; interclutch interval averaged 19 days; incubation period lasted 62-114 days (mean about 80-90 days) (Messinger and Patton 1995). In Florida, modal clutch size was 2 and only a small percentage of the population produced multiple clutches; some individuals appeared to skip reproduction in some years (Dodd 1997). Eggs hatch in about 2-3 months, often in August, September, or October; hatchlings may overwinter in the nest. Age of sexual maturity has been variously reported as 4-5 or 5-10 years (Williams and Parker 1987). Nesting of individual females may extend over at least 32 years (Stickel 1989). In the wild, few box turtles live more than 40 years, but some may live a century or more.","ecologyComments":"Population density in various parts of the range varies from a few per hectare up to a few dozen per hectare (see Stickel 1950, Dolbeer 1969, Schwartz et al. 1984, Williams and Parker 1987, Ernst et al. 1994, Langtimm et al. 1996, Pilgrim et al. 1997). <br/><br/>Home ranges overlap; nonterritorial. Home range diameter was estimated at about 100-230 m in several studies. Adult home range was 2 ha or less in Missouri, averaged slightly more than 1 ha in Maryland and did not change much over several years (Stickel 1989). Over 25 years, the home ranges of 22 individuals in Missouri ranged from 2.2 to 10.6 ha (Schwartz and Schwartz 1991). <br/><br/>Annual survivorship was 0.93-0.94 for adults in Maryland, 0.74-0.92 for adults in Missouri, and 0.93 for subadults and adults in Indiana (Williams and Parker 1987, Stickel 1978, Iverson 1991). Minimum natural longevity is 45-50 years (Williams and Parker 1987). <br/><br/>Fire may play a critical role in the ecology of Florida box turtle populations (Ernst et al. 1995, Herpetol. Rev. 26:185-187).","habitatComments":"Eastern box turtles inhabit forests, fields, forest-brush, and forest-field ecotones. In some areas they move seasonally from fields in spring to forest in summer. They commonly enters pools of shallow water in summer. For shelter, they burrow into loose soil, debris, mud, old stump holes, or under leaf litter. They can successfully hibernate in sites that may experience subfreezing temperatures. In Maryland bottomland forest, some hibernated in pits or depressions in forest floor (usually about 30 cm deep) usually within summer range; individuals tended to hibernate in same area in different years (Stickel 1989).<br/><br/>Egg laying sites often are sandy or loamy soils in open areas; females may move from bottomlands to warmer and drier sites to nest. In Maryland, females used the same nesting area in different years (Stickel 1989).","generalDescription":"The upper shell is hard, domed, arched, and generally has evidence of a keel. Coloration is highly variable. The lower shell is transversely hinged in adults, allowing the shell to be tightly closed. Maximum straight-line length of the upper shell is about 8.5 nches (22 cm). In mature males, the iris and spots on the forelimbs may be red, the rear portion of the lower shell is concave or not, and the vent is located beyond the rear edge of the upper shell when the tail is extended. In mature females, the vent is at or inside rear edge of upper shell when the tail is extended.","diagnosticCharacteristics":null,"speciesMarineHabitats":[],"speciesTerrestrialHabitats":[{"cagTerrHabId":-104645,"terrestrialHabitat":{"id":1,"terrestrialHabitatDescEn":"Forest - Hardwood","terrestrialHabitatDescEs":"Bosque - Madera dura","terrestrialHabitatDescFr":"Forêt — Feuillu","displayOrder":2}},{"cagTerrHabId":-104646,"terrestrialHabitat":{"id":2,"terrestrialHabitatDescEn":"Forest - Conifer","terrestrialHabitatDescEs":"Bosque - Conífera","terrestrialHabitatDescFr":"Forêt — Résineux","displayOrder":3}},{"cagTerrHabId":-104647,"terrestrialHabitat":{"id":3,"terrestrialHabitatDescEn":"Forest - Mixed","terrestrialHabitatDescEs":"Bosque - Mixto","terrestrialHabitatDescFr":"Forêt — Mixte","displayOrder":4}},{"cagTerrHabId":-104648,"terrestrialHabitat":{"id":4,"terrestrialHabitatDescEn":"Woodland - Hardwood","terrestrialHabitatDescEs":"Lote de madera - Madera dura","terrestrialHabitatDescFr":"Terrain boisé — Feuillu","displayOrder":6}},{"cagTerrHabId":-104649,"terrestrialHabitat":{"id":5,"terrestrialHabitatDescEn":"Woodland - Conifer","terrestrialHabitatDescEs":"Lote de madera - Conífera","terrestrialHabitatDescFr":"Terrain boisé — Résineux","displayOrder":7}},{"cagTerrHabId":-104650,"terrestrialHabitat":{"id":6,"terrestrialHabitatDescEn":"Woodland - Mixed","terrestrialHabitatDescEs":"Lote de madera - Mixto","terrestrialHabitatDescFr":"Terrain boisé — Mixte","displayOrder":8}},{"cagTerrHabId":-104643,"terrestrialHabitat":{"id":9,"terrestrialHabitatDescEn":"Grassland/herbaceous","terrestrialHabitatDescEs":"Pastizales/cobertura herbácea","terrestrialHabitatDescFr":"Prairie/couverture herbacée","displayOrder":11}},{"cagTerrHabId":-104644,"terrestrialHabitat":{"id":19,"terrestrialHabitatDescEn":"Cropland/hedgerow","terrestrialHabitatDescEs":"Tierras cultivadas/cerco vivo","terrestrialHabitatDescFr":"Terre cultivée/haie","displayOrder":22}}],"speciesRiverineHabitats":[],"speciesPalustrineHabitats":[],"speciesLacustrineHabitats":[],"speciesSubterraneanHabitats":[],"speciesEstuarineHabitats":[]},"primaryReference":{"id":1107320,"citation":"Turtle Taxonomy Working Group (TTWG) [Rhodin, A. G. J., J. B. Iverson, R. Bour, U. Fritz, A. Georges, H. B. Shaffer, and P. P. van Dijk]. 2021. Turtles of the World: Annotated Checklist and Atlas of Taxonomy, Synonymy, Distribution, and Conservation Status (9th Ed.). In: Rhodin, A. G. J., J. B. Iverson , P. P. van Dijk, C. B. Stanford, E. V. Goode, K. A. Buhlmann, and R. A. Mittermeier (Eds.). Conservation Biology of Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises: A Compilation Project of the IUCN/SSC Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group. Chelonian Research Monographs 8:1–472. doi: 10.3854/crm.8.checklist.atlas.v9.2021.","shortCitationAuthor":"TTWG","shortCitationYear":2021,"referenceCode":"B21TTW01NAUS","lastModified":"2022-07-02T00:44:58.794768Z"},"predecessors":[],"elementGlobalThreatAssessments":[]}